Teddy Payne

Few African Americans of any age have had as great an on their generation or subsequent generations as Douglass has had. Born into slavery in Maryland Douglass was sent away to work as a house slave at age nine and to taught to read and write by his master’s wife though such activities were illegal. He later returned to his original owner and served as a field slave. He attempts to escape at 19 but is caught, punished and rented out to a Baltimore ship caulker. The event fortuitous for Douglas as he met Anna Murray a free woman and his future wife during this time. He determined to fight off an attack by his master and seize his freedom with his own hands. He made his escape and using the papers of a free black sailor he booked passage on a north bound ship.

Although popular the resettlement of blacks to Africa was replaced by a new more radical plan The Abolition of Slavery. Denouncing the ACS’s plan of an ordered drawn out end to slavery through repatriation to Africa. Abolition called for the immediate end to black slavery. Throughout the 1820’s free black communities in the North endorse abolition measures including those that included violence. David walker’s the Appeal of the Colored Citizens of the World popularly known as David Walker’s Appeal a particularly incendiary tract. In his pamphlet Walker a clothing salesman and pamphleteer called on whites to accept black liberation and warned of armed conflicts over the issue, he also offered incendiary condemnation to the notion of white superiority. Walker’s work was banned in the slave holding south and a bounty of $10,000 was placed on Walker dead or alive by slave owners. Walker himself died suddenly after the publication of his great work leading many to suspect foul play.

Florida in the early years of the 19th century was a far safer destination for runaway slaves in the Deep South than the northern states or Canada. Florida was a thick tangle of swampland and tropical forest that teamed with tropical disease that cut through the ranks of white settlers. Florida was also a Spanish Possession until 1819 and fiercely protected by the Seminole Tribe. In Florida runaways and Seminoles formed a symbiotic community hunting, raising crops and defending communities from encroaching Americans. Slaves needed little inducement to join such a community. Communities in Georgia had a long tradition of launching attacks into Florida to push Seminole settlements back and recapture lost slaves. In 1816 Andrew Jackson launched a major expedition into Spanish Florida targeting a well-known community Fort Negro on Apalachicola Bay. Jackson’s campaign continued and by 1818 most of the Seminoles and runaways had been pushed south of the Florida Panhandle.

Religion was a mainstay of plantation life. In certain areas like the Sea Islands off the coast of Georgia and South Carolina or the delta region of Louisiana where slave imports were steady and consistent until the British abolition of the international slave trade slave religious traditions resembled those practiced in West Africa. But generally slaves practiced protestant Christianity being either Methodist or Baptists. Slave owners tended to inculcate Christianity on their plantations with the absorption of the desired traits of obedience, loyalty and submission to a God given or sanctioned order where blacks were subservient to whites with the reward of freedom coming in the afterlife. Slave congregation taught and absorbed a different message. In secret services self-taught slaves or Itinerant free black ministers prioritized liberation on earth not the afterlife. The biblical tale of the Exodus took on a new meaning as did the life and career of Moses as the leader of the Hebrews out of their sufferings in Egypt. The Black Churches of the early Republic preached to congregants that were free or slave North and South they emphasized that slavery’s possessed an inherit evil nature as a wicked institution created by the Devil himself. As good Christians slaves were bound by their faith to fight sin and wickedness. Hence every act of subversion every act of resistance to the slave master became the infused with a higher purpose they became fulfilling the will of God.

During the Early Republic slave owning was the White South’s version of the American dream. Though slave ownership was aspired to by all it was increasingly kept in the hands of a very small number of individuals. The percentage of slave owners steadily fell from 1820 until 1860. Even though fewer southerners were holding slaves the institution remained strong and a potent force in southern life. Defended by nearly all southerners. Poor, slave less, landless whites had a number of reasons to defend slavery. One slavery made all whites regardless of property holding and personal wealth equal on the basis of ethnicity. They were defacto members of the ruling class since they were white and if slavery went away so would their special social standing. Secondly social mobility was very fluid in the early republic. The dream was to acquire slaves to work on plantations further and further west so that you could join the ranks of the slavocrats. The poor whites of the south also benefitted from slavery by serving as a home guard against slave rebellions, they also policed both slave and free blacks living areas, questioning, detaining and interrogating any African American they wished.

In the plantation system of the antebellum (pre-civil war south) plantation were self-contained units. With all but luxury goods consumed by the slave owner and his family being grown or manufactured from within the small community. Slaves organized into work task forces that saw some slaves being placed into occupations that allowed them to acquire very important skill sets, like Blacksmithing, Carpentry, Barrel making (coopering), cobbling (shoe making) and Tailoring/sowing.  A few slaves even gained promotion to the position of overseer. Though this position was typically reserved for a landless white and indeed served as a seasoning experience for a one aspiring to slave and plantation ownership. For those few slaves who were promoted to the position of Overseer they were left conflicted with having to drive their fellow slaves to work and punish slaves when the Master commanded it. That was a small matter for the slave community when compared to the biggest division labor on the plantation. The separation of house slaves and field slaves had the most pronounce effect on the slave community and still resonates with the descendants of slaves today.

Jacksonian Democracy was made up of contradictory elements all of the components wanted change and was dissatisfied with the way things were but otherwise had very little in common. The only common denominator able to hold this group together was a strict interpretation of the constitution. This best illustrated by the Bank War, the destruction of the 2nd National Bank of The United States. Chartered in 1816 for 20 years the 2nd National Bank stood as a symbol of the Democratic Republican move to center following the end of the War of 1812. Democratic Republicans opposed the 1st National Bank in the 1790’s.

Jacksonian Democracy was made up of contradictory elements all of the components wanted change and was dissatisfied with the way things were but otherwise had very little in common. The only common denominator able to hold this group together was a strict interpretation of the constitution. This best illustrated by the Bank War, the destruction of the 2nd National Bank of The United States. Chartered in 1816 for 20 years the 2nd National Bank stood as a symbol of the Democratic Republican move to center following the end of the War of 1812. Democratic Republicans opposed the 1st National Bank in the 1790’s.

The election of 1824 ended with no clear majority winner in the Electoral College so it was sent to the House of Representatives as per the 12th Amendment. Henry Clay had counted on the election being a three way race and not receiving the majority of votes in the Electoral College and winning the election in the House of representative. The candidacy of Andrew Jackson ruined his plan and turned the election of 1824 into a four way race that saw Clay come in fourth and be dropped from consideration. Though he was out of the presidential race Clay could still influence the election. Clay still had tremendous authority in the house and there was no law that stated that a representative had to vote the way his state did. Clay was in a position to play king maker if the price was right. Clay disliked Jackson, at all levels he referred to him as a military chieftain Clay had for that matter not gotten along with John Quincy Adams either. Adams could however be relied upon to carry the National Republican program.

Jackson’s election ushered in a new era in United States History that is named after him the Age of Jackson. It was at this time the bulk of the property qualification laws were over turned and the United States began to edge closer to democracy for adult white males. Jackson sailed through elections with clear cut large majorities. Jackson is the symbol of the democratic thrusts and reform of his day but he is an odd symbol of democracy. He was a wealthy southern slave owning aristocrat. Many of the policies he championed were not democratic he opposed most of overt democratic movements of his day. Most notably abolitionism, rights for free blacks, white women and Native Americans. The rights of these people deteriorated under Jacksonian democracy. He backed southern postmasters who refused to deliver abolitionist literature, he supported gag rules to suppress the reading of abolitionist literature submitted to Congress. Yet he was an apt symbol of the era and the nature of American Democracy. Jackson was largely self-educated, prospered in the western lands, became a major slave owner and political figure in Tennessee. Rose to national prominence in the War of 1812 for his victories at Horseshoe Bend and New Orleans. Jackson star rose even further with his invasion and occupation of Spanish Florida in 1818. Jackson made a fortune and lost a fortune during time as well he became a symbol of the American dream for his era. A poor boy with nothing but his labor and dreams who prospered.

With the close of James Monroe’s 2nd term in office in 1824 there came a flurry of political agitation on who his successor would be. With the death of Hamilton and the folly of the Hartford Convention the Federalist Party had gradually ebbed away as a political force in the nation. Leaving the Democratic Republicans as the only political party in the nation. The presidential successor had been chosen through a caucus comprised of members of the House of Representatives, typically the Secretary of State would be chosen to succeed to the presidency. This caucus system worked only if the party members followed party discipline and supported the most likely candidate.

Rather than one singular event the Industrial Revolution was a sequence of events that changed production, working capital, sources of power and labor. The industrial revolution was not the origin of using machines to mass produce finish goods. The industrial revolution brought about the change in the source of power and the size of the machines used to create finished goods. These two events lowered the prices of the goods lower and lower. More importantly they lowered the price of producing finished goods. The size of the machines were limited to power needed to generate them. Humans, water or animals were used to power the machines until the 1780’s when James Watt developed the first steam engine. This meant that textile mills were no longer limited to streams or that machines were no longer limited in size to something that could be power by animal or human muscle. Mills could be built anywhere now. With production increasing the need for workers increased. To fill the void manufactures turned to a new type of worker one different from the farm laborer or the dock yard worker. With machines doing the work the new workers were transformed in to operatives who followed the lead of the machines. They lost the ability to work at their own pace and became regimented the dictum of the machine. The preindustrial world largely commercial capitalism. They derived their profits from imports and exports. The merchants Hamilton supported were such men who transported preindustrial goods. The Industrial Revolution opened up Industrial Capitalism to the world. That is deriving profits from the sale of finished goods in the global market.

Henry Clay championed economic development and national internal improvements to ensure the United States ability to compete on the global stage against European nations. Clay was joined by a number of politicians including John C. Calhoun of South Carolina who supported his initiative to fix the weakness of the Jeffersonian program to defend the liberty of the nation. Calhoun’s motive was to prevent sectionalism from taking down the republic. There was major opposition to this program many feared the introduction of money into the rural farming communities as destructive. 1819 promptly proved the nay sayers right. As it blew up in the face of Clay, Calhoun, bankers all of the National Republicans.

The war of 1812 went bad and except for Jackson post peace victory at New Orleans it ended badly too. The war and peace taught many Democratic Republicans unpleasant lessons about the feasibility of Jefferson’s Revolution of 1800. Democratic Republicans were anti National Bank but if the National bank had been rechartered than the Secretary of the Treasury could have borrowed the $18 million he needed to fund the war from the bank since there was no national bank the secretary of the treasury was forced to make deals with John Jacob Astor and Stephen Giraud for personal loans to keep the country going. The Democratic Republicans were also supposed to oppose taxation as an infringement upon the liberty of the virtuous farmer. Well a government that does not tax is a government that cannot afford to fund internal improvement like the upkeep of roads, fund armies or navies. The dismal and haphazard performance of the United States forces underscored the folly of small government. Madison was not the first person to realize these inconsistencies but he was the most important.

The British had long practiced impressment on the high seas that is taking sailors off of ships after labeling them deserters and having them serve in the royal navy. This was nothing new but events in the early 1800’s would cause an international breakdown in Anglo-American relations. In July of 1807 the American merchant ship Caravan pulled in to the Portuguese possession of Macau to trade with the Chinese. The HMS Diana a British Warship pulled up next to the Caravan and demanded permission to board her to search for a Royal Navy deserter rumored to be stowing away among the crew of the Caravan. The Caravan’s Captain Gilchrist attempted to argue with the Lt. commanding the Diana but to no avail with 40 men armed with cutlasses and pistols he barrels past Gilchrist and takes a handful of deserters back to the Diana. Captain Gilchrist goes wild with anger but his anger is pointless. The British have superior numbers and weapons. He tried up along with his 1st officer. His 2nd officer is then taken as a surety of American good behavior. In August the schooner Topaz sailed into Macau and she too was stopped by the Diana. Captain Nichols of topaz fired upon the British boarding party wounding a Lt. from the Diana, the British then swarmed the Topaz shot down Captain Nichols and took possession of the Topaz and her cargo under the charges of Piracy. These incidents happened because the United States was helplessly caught up in the struggle between France and Great Britain. Jefferson’s answer was the Embargo which hurt the United states far greater than it did the British or French.

As stated earlier Jefferson was passionate and suffered tunnel vision concerning Agrarianism in the United States he was fixated on a link he made between independent farming, virtue and liberty.  Jefferson believed that agricultural workers those who tilled the soil and harvested crops were the chosen people of God. He harbored deep distain for manufacturing and city life which he saw as threatening to liberty since city life led to dependence with led to subservience which undermines liberty. In the 1790’s his views were the widely supported in the United States. When he entered the Whitehouse in 1800 around 85% of the nation’s population was engaged in agriculture despite Hamilton’s great successes with the National Bank and fostering support for early manufacturing. The overwhelming majority of Americans lived in the countryside very few lived into large communities. In fact there were only 5 cities with populations of over 25,000 Boston, New York, Charleston, Baltimore and Philadelphia. Philadelphia the Nation’s largest city was itself dwarfed by London and Paris who had populations of over 1 million.

In the immediate years following the American Revolution there was a rush to manumit slaves. The Free Black population rose significantly reaching over 200,000 before the end of the century. This increase in free persons provided the critical mass necessary to create independent communities like the African Union Society of Rhode Island, The Free African Society of Philadelphia and the African Method Episcopal Church.

Before John Marshall the Supreme Court was the backwater of the national government. John Adams lone term in office was very memorable for the Supreme Court. He placed three justices on the bench, when the court had a membership of only 6. The judicial appointee was Bushrod Washington in 1798, the second was Alfred Moore in 1799 and lastly John Marshall in 1800. John Marshall was a former member of Congress and Adam’s own secretary of State. John Marshall headed the court for 34 yearsand is considered the best chief justice in the court’s history.

The most notorious man of his generation. Aaron Burr the 3rd Vice President of the United States. Burr was a scion of New York society. He was charming, ambitious, handsome and wealthy. He gained access to the highest echelons of New York politics through through his family’s money and his personal talents. He had allied with the Democratic Republican not because he shared their agarian philosophy but becausehe and Hamilton were bitter enemies. He wass paired with Jefferson in the election of 1800 so Jefferson could garner the Northern vote. The election results in a tie between Burr and Jefferson. The tie for the presidency in the election of 1800 was sent to the House of Representatives which was held by the Federalist. They were going to decide on who would be the next president. The general feeling was that they could work with Burr, he was not committed to the agrarian society Jefferson wanted, he had no qualms about the bank, import and export duties and he had a lot of friends who advocated on his behalf. He had created the New York City political machine Tammany Hall. Hamilton understood Madison and Jefferson he had worked with them he knew he could work with them on future. He believes that Burr is total scoundrel. He instructs the federalist in the house to vote for Jefferson. Burr had played his hand and lost, after the vote in house Madison and Jefferson then swiftly cut him loose from the incoming administration. He was also dumped by Jefferson in his reelection plans for 1804. Burr now as to rebuild his political prospects. He decides to run for the governorship of New York but Hamilton blocks that and again denounces Burr.

Hamilton and Jefferson held views that were the opposite of each others in regards to the right or appropriate domestic and foreign policy course for the young republic. The two men also differed wildly on their interpretations of the Constitution with Hamilton favoring a broad inpretation and Jefferson holding a narrowing interpretation. The conflict between the two is seen as the forerunner of all subsequent political conflicts. Now it is common to label Hamilton the Conservative and Jefferson the Liberal in their conflict. The issues over which they quarrelled are in no why relevant to contemporary issues however. Their views also had little to do with the actual political terms Conservative and Liberal as we know them today.
They were selected for the two most important cabinet positions in Washinton’s administration as the first Secretaries of State and the Treasury. This was done in an effort to maintain sectional balance in the federal government and political ideologies. The desire for sectional balance also explains why John Adams of Massachusetts was paired with the Virginian George Washington. No one had any idea of the split that would develop the two. The split between Hamilton and Jefferson developed on two pertinent issues one domestic, the young republic’s fiscal policy and one foreign which was the young republic’s definition of neutrality in regards to Great Britain and France. Hamilton has Treasurer reasoned that the most pressing concerns for the United States was the establishing of credit both domestically and in foreign markets. He wanted the new national government to assume the states old war debt and combine it with the national government’s debt. He would then fund both debts with a new bond issue. Hamilton also proposed new new taxes on manufactured goods, foreign imports and the establishment of a national bank. Hamilton’s aim was simply he wanted to tie the republic’s wealthy merchant elite financial classes to the nation’s success. In plan for establishing the nation’s credit the nation debt would become a national blessing.

In the early American Republic there was a pervasive fear that the young nation would be swallowed up by one or more of the great colonial powers of Europe. Recolonization by Great Britain, France or Spain was used by both political parties. These fears were heightened after Napoleon Bonaparte seized power and declared the 1st French Empire. Jefferson who was reeling from his failures in the east turned his attention west. Jefferson was devoted to the idea of a self-sufficient agricultural economy and opening up the undeveloped western lands between the Appalachians and the Mississippi River. His vision was to create an Empire of liberty with no need for the entanglements of Europe because its citizens would be land owners with farms of their own and capable of supporting themselves. Jefferson cast every road block to western expansion aside. He cut the price of land in the west. He lowered the minimal size for purchase. He turned a blind eye to squatters. He simply wanted the lands settled. Americans did not need any encouragement to push westward however. The population was rising significantly really exploding through natural increase and immigration. In 1790 the first national census reported only 100,000 white settlers west of the Appalachians by 1800 that number was over 400,000. The Jeffersonian pro expansion program had turned what was a persistent flow of settlers into a torrent of spilling a chaotic brew of an unregulated and ungainly sprawl of squatters, settlers, land brokers and entrepreneurs. By 1803 the territory of Ohio was organized to the specifics of the northwest ordinances and ready to be admitted to the union as the 17th state. By 1810 the entire Trans Appalachian population had soared to 1 million people. In 1820 the rose to 2 million. The settlement of the west was by far Jefferson’s great accomplishment but it had one very big drawback.

Jefferson viewed his election as the work of God. He thought of himself as the man who could have righted the many wrongs of Hamilton. In fact Jefferson referred to his election as the revolution of 1800. He viewed it as the equivalent of the 1776 revolution. His inauguration was the first to take place in the new capital of Washington. He promised to pay off the national debt and then dismantle the national bank and taxation system of Hamilton. He also stated his intention to contain the size of the military. He also stated that there would be no favoritism shown in foreign policy. No concessions to the British or French. Free trade to all, the end to all of the Federalist tariffs which kept foreign manufactured goods at high prices to farmers in order to benefit American manufacturers. He also promised to deal gently with his federalist opponents. The smooth transition of power is unique in North America.  Jefferson during his inaugural address made the statement “We are all Democratic Republicans, we are all Federalist.” What he meant is that everyone was now on his team. He was hinting at the elimination of opposition to him and his future program of governance.

John Adams had been one of the most distinguished Americans of his generation. Throughout the 1770’s and 90’s few of his contemporaies could match his service record. Rising from being a small time Massachusetts back country lawyer, he had defended the British soldiers put on Trial for their participation in the Boston Shooting that saw the deaths of multiple civilians including Crispus Attucks. He had denounced the Stamp Act back n 1765, served in the contnental Congressfrom 1774-78, he was the seconder of Richard Henry Lee’s resolution for Independence, he served on the delegation sent to negoiate the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Adams continued his service to his country by serving as the first American Ambassador to Great Britainand finally as the first Vice President of the United States and the First President of the United States Senate. For all his service few people liked him in fact Benjamin Franklin came to heatedly dislike him personally.

Washington Failures and Accomplishments
Namesake of numerous Counties, A State, the national Capital City, his portrait on the $1 note and Quarter coin. Subject to many myths. Tossing a silver dollar across the Chesapeake River. The myth of chopping down a Cherry Tree.
He was not a great military or political leader. He was highly criticized during the War of Independence. A very unstellar military record. As President he failed to check the drift of factions and the formation of political parties. Became a de facto member of one party.

Throughout the 1790’s Hamilton dominated national politics. Opponents to Hamilton sweltered under his program and look for ways to find political relief.
During the early stages of American politics everything revolved around factions. Faction politics are temporary it forms and dissolves after the issue passes.
Parties on the other hand are built around long term formulas for public policy.
Factional politics are local, regional or limited to only special interests.
Party Politics are national, cross ethnic lines and class lines. Factions are small scale. Parties are large scale by nature for the mobilization voters, the nomination of party candidates and use charismatic symbols.
Factions are often autocratic revolving around the person of one or two polarizing figures. Parties are generally more democratic the survive the loss of their leadership and political defeat.
At the time nobody understood the depth of the split over the supporters and opponents of the new economic program and policy plan.
Both sides denied they were parties and claimed to be counter parties.
Madison set out to check Hamilton and found a useful ally in Jefferson who was eager to promote agricultural interests in National politics.

The constitution was greeted with suspicion and distrust by the State elites. The Federalists Papers largely failed to pacify their fears only the promise of the Bill of Rights made the new government possible. Which became the first action of the new government in 1789. The new government promised to do nothing that was unauthorized by the Constitution but almost immediately began making unauthorized actions. The creation of an administration to aid and advise the President was not authorized by the Constitution. The experience of the Articles of Confederation made it prudent to create and maintain an advisory council. The initial four administrative departments were the Departments of War under Henry Knox, the Treasury under Alexander Hamilton, State under Thomas Jefferson and the Attorney General Edmund Randolph.
The new government inherited a debt of over 70 million dollars 42 million of which was owed to its own citizens. The Constitution did not spell out how the new nation was supposed to pay off its debt.

The Philadelphia Convention was ostensibly about the trade but very quickly became a conference for reviewing the Articles of Confederation. With the Articles confirmed as the problem a new instrument of governance was sought. New men dominated the Philadelphia Convention, only 3 delegates had attended the stamp Act Congress of 1765. 8 were signers of the of the 1776 Declaration of Independence. Only a little more than half had served in the Continental Congress. 22 served in the Continental Army. 3 served on Washington’ Staff. These men were not middle class, they were wealthy elite. 2/3 were overtly wealthy ensuring the rich stayed rich guided the convention. So many men were unknowns who thought nationally not locally. Rhode Island abstained from sending any delegates.
The Philadelphia Convention 55 men from 12 states assembled from May to September 1787.

After the war it was unclear if the new nation would survive. Both Congress and the States were hopelessly in debt. The States could hope to use land sales to finance themselves while Congress had no such recourse being unable to raise money through taxation, only being able to request funds from the states at their discretion. Congress took to paying its bills through paper money which was greatly depreciating in value dwindling to basically nothing. The Continental Army veterans had to accept this money or go unpaid.

The Articles of Confederation established a government with only legislative powers. There was no executive or judiciary. Each State was a grant a single vote and could stymie unfavorable legislation. Decentralization was the Revolutionary generation’s way of preserving liberty.
The Articles did function as a legitimate instrument of government with positive gains. Independence was secured and large territorial concessions were made from Great Britain. The lowering of property qualifications for voting, frequent elections and abolition in the Northern States and an easing of the restrictions on manumission in the Southern States, expansion of public education, the pattern for western expansion and settlement was established.
The Northwest Ordinances of 1784, 85 and 87 were passed. All western lands northwest of the Ohio was to be sold in lots of 640 acres they would be admitted to the Union when the population reached 60,000 and slavery was to be outlawed. Trade was open and loans obtained with other nations.
The Flaws of the Articles of Confederation was that the National government had no power to tax, no armed forces, the army was reduced to 80 men and used for ceremonial purposes. Defense was left to the State Militias. There was no respect for the new nation in international circles. The British locked the Americans out of their trade system. They kept their trade posts and forts in the Great Lakes and supported native uprisings against settlers. Spain refused to allow the Americans to use the Mississippi River or recognize the American southern claims to Western Florida.

Up until now the Americans had been fighting an enemy that was far away and that underestimated them. They had also only been fighting a very small contingent of what was the most successful Army of the 18th century. After the Seven Years War the British Army stood at 48,000 men and that number was diced up into garrisons that supported Britain’s global commitments. At wars end that number would balloon to 100,000 but at that point they were fighting the Dutch, Spanish and French all on their own. Those who underestimated the British Army were to pay for their over confidence.

Washington managed to keep the ragtag continental army together and pose a somewhat military threat to the British field armies operating in North America. Though he endured crushing defeats at Long Island in 1776 and Brandywine creek in 1777. Preserving his force through the hard pressed winter at Valley Forge and conducting the raids on Princeton and Trenton. The continental army could not stand up to the British army in the field their best chance at survival was to hold out until the war strain got to the British parliament. The French were watching and waiting. They wanted to embarrass the British for the seven years’ war but they were only going to ally with the colonists if they made a complete break with the British and demonstrated that they could defeat a British in battle.

Lexington and Concord could have remained a minor incident if the colonists and British were willing to act conciliatorily toward each other. They didn’t. If they played the Empire card the British could have tapped into Pro-British sentiment and the colonists could have tapped into pro empire and pro Whig sentiment in Parliament. They both failed to exploit the divided opinion on both sides of the Atlantic on what to do next.

After the War the British faced a massive native uprising in the lands south of the St. Lawrence won from France. So they prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains the Proclamation line of 1763. This hurt the colonists internally, their legislatures powers rested on their ability to control the governor’s through the powers of the purse.
The elites controlled the assemblies and were not willing tax themselves on a regular basis they provided the money needed to run the government through land speculation. With the western lands closed off to them they felt that the proclamation line deprived them of the fruits of their war time labor.
They would also be unable to fund the colonial governments and either have to tax themselves or lose their peculiar political rights. The Yankee persona of a shrewd calculating businessman. Which was exemplified by the colonial elite’s fiscal leverage over the governors who were made to walk a tight rope between following London’s orders and being able to perform their duties.
With trans-Appalachian settlement barred the British hoped new settlers would move to Canada or the Floridas which had just been won. There was a lot of resistance to this because of the intense cold of Canada and the fears of contracting malaria in Florida. Neither Canada nor the Floridas had legislatures.

After the War of The Austrian Succession a diplomatic Revolution occurred. Austria and France ended their century’s long enmity towards each other and concluded broad family and national alliances against both Prussia and Great Britain. The British and The French had been jostling for control of the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes regions. This area had long been a French sphere of influence but since the French never developed the same type of settler colonialism that the English or British developed meant that the areas would always be subject to British colonial encroachment. During the 1720’s and 1740’s the wars escalated and saw France and her native allies sustain loss after loss followed by territorial concessions. The concessions proved to be of no great importance as the French never evacuated the contested regions nor did they swear any oaths of loyalty to the British. Their native allies followed suit and made the British colonial frontier even more unstable.

In 1689 the English initiated a rebellion against James VII, in response  to Catholism, attempts to expand the royal role in government at parliaments expense and most importantly the birth of his son, James Francis Edward Stuart. In 1690 William III emerges supreme in the Dutch Conquest of England, Scotland and Ireland. With his victory over James VII and II at Boyne. The protestant ascendency. 1700 Samuel Sewell publishes The Selling of Joseph first abolitionist tract.

New Sweden’s prosperity cut in to New Netherlands trade. The Dutch invaded and took it over with no big fuss in 1654. The Dutch were not able to convince the Algonquians to trade with them. They also barely survived a native attack in response to Dutch attempts to levy taxes on them.
Was a military struggle between the colony of New Netherland and the local natives? The war came about because of a misguided attempt by Willem Kieft Director of New Netherland to levy taxes on natives. His actions led to the unification of all the other local tribes into an Anti-Dutch Confederacy. Dutch soldiers massacred natives the settlers returned to the Netherlands.  The war ruined the peace that had existed between the Dutch colonist and natives. The natives were the principal suppliers of furs for the Dutch so the colonist were against the war but Kieft was adamant. He dissolved his advisory council and order the troops to attack. The natives responded by raising a force of their own and launching their own attacks on the Dutch settlements. Anne Hutchinson was a notable casualty.  The Native alliance struck settlement after settlement the small colonial militia was too small to do anything to prevent the attacks.  The war continued for two years until the Dutch were able to form a tentative peace with the natives. During the war the populations were drastically reduced. Many Dutch returned home and many natives were massacred by the Dutch.

The older colonies of Maryland and Virginia were supporters of the Crown while the New England colonies which had all been founded by puritans sided with Parliament. Because of the wars Virginia’s population swelled as the defeated royalist fled for safety.
A protective barricade built to protect Jamestown and plantations. The Third Powhatan War results in the disintegration of the Powhatan confederacy.  Practice of placing defeated on Natives on Reservations begins.
Virginia rewarded for its supposed loyalty with the title Old Dominion
Nathaniel Bacon’s rebellion in Virginia an attempt to bring about equality and confiscate native land
Faced a puritan uprising during the Protectorate Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore became the first lord Baltimore to step foot in Maryland in 1661. Maryland would lose significant amounts of territory to Pennsylvania during his tenure. The Calvert’s would lose control of their colony for being Catholics. The Calvert’s later lost control of the colony during an uprising led by John Coode.

As the English expanded out of Jamestown, they encroached on native territory the natives, the Powhattan confederacy was in a period of empire building. They were subjecting the local populations and turning them into tribute paying vassals. The English colonist’s expansion triggered several conflicts between the two. The first war between the two began in 1610 when the Confederacy captured the property of English settlers. The Governor of Virginia Lord De la Warr sent an expeditionary force to attack the Paspahegh they killed a number of the natives, including one of the wives of the village chief and her children. The natives soon fled from their settlement. The war continued with intermittent raids until the marriage of John Rolfe and Pocahontas in 1614. The death of both Pocahontas and her father coupled with increased completion for land as tobacco cultivation became central for the colony’s survival. In 1622 the Powhattans launched a series of swift attacks that nearly toppled the Virginia colony. Hundreds were killed and taken captive. The English response was to lure the Powhattans into a truce and poison them. They then began to systematically destroy native settlements. In yearly raids the English drove off the Powhattans and established themselves on the abandoned lands.

Virginia the first of England’s north American colony’s proved to be instrumental in ordering race relations in the colony’s. They accomplished this by passing a series of statutes that defined the social standing of Africans and Europeans.
In 1619 a Dutch slaver brought the first Africans to the colony of Virginia. Changing the future labor pattern of English/British colonialism. In 1623 William Tucker becomes the first African-American child born in the English colonies. In 1630 Sleeping with a black maidservant becomes a punishable offense in Colonial Virginia. The punishment is a whipping for defiling your body with a Negro. In 1639 the Virginia House of Burgesses passes a law that provides ammunition and arms to all colonists except blacks. The first gun control law. During the period of time between the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and Royal Restoration. The Virginia Slavocrats rewrote the Colony’s laws to favor them in future law suits. In 1640 the punishments for Conspiracy to escape were altered with white servants being sentenced to extra service and Black servants being sentenced to a whipping, branded, and wearing shackles for one year. In 1642 The Virginia House of Burgess passed the first Fugitive Slave Act. This act penalized those who helped slaves to escape.

England had originally planned to be an ally of the Trastamaran-Habsburg alliance.
Henry VII, had his two sons Arthur, Prince of Wales and Henry, Duke of York marry the Infanta Catherine of Aragon in quick succession.
The Tudor hold on England was tenuous however. It rested on the availability of a clear male successor.
The country had been plagued by dynastic turmoil from the disposition of Richard II in 1399 that ruined the Plantagenets has competing branches vied for the crown culminating in the Battle of Bosworth Field where the last Plantagenet King Richard III died paving the way for a new dynasty.
The Tudor hold on England and Wales depended on a male heir to unite and keep the fractious English nobility in line. The inability of the Queen Catherine of Aragon to provide the King Henry VIII with a male heir coupled with the fact that her nephew Charles V was the most powerful ruler in the world who maintained a strong influence in Italy.

Soo much territory and wealth aroused the suspicions of every other power.
1. The Northwest Germans
a. Growing resentment and the adoption of protestantism leads to the breakaway of the 17 territories
2. The Portuguese
a. Brought into the fold in 1580 by the Ascension of Philip II never united their colonies or home administrations.
3. The Habsburg Division
a. In 1556 Charles V divides his territories between his son Philip of Prince of Asturias and his brother Archduke Ferdinand of Austria.
b. Spanish Habsburgs
i. Philip II succeeds to the Spanish kingdoms of Leon-Castile and the lands of the Crown of Aragon with include Naples and Sicily, Navarre, Cataluña, the low countries and Americas
c. Austrian Habsburgs
i. Ferdinand I succeeds as Holy Roman Emperor, Archduke of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Slovakia.
d. Familial Cooperation
i. The two branches with the understanding that it was in their best interests to support each other openly concluded inter-generational marriages, and aided each other in foreign diplomacy and defense

1. Ferdinand and Isabella set about trying to implement the incorporation of the Americas into their domains in an orderly manner.
2. Faced competition from the Spanish nobles, freebooting adventurers, the church and other European powers.
a. The Spanish nobles expected to figure prominently into the new territorial gains.
b. Freebooters were surpassing nobles in wealth.
c. The church expected conversion to be the main priority of the Crown regardless of political realities.

One of the most if not the most monumental event in world history. Changed the world in every day. Economically, politically, socially and ideologically transformed the world. Europe leapt from being a regional backwater into a global titan.
The consequences Leon-Castile and Aragon leaps from being a burgeoning power into a massive Empire Saddling both sides of the Atlantic. They are ridiculously wealthy. The native peoples were decimated, enslaved, suffer pandemics, a major decline in populations, loss of territories and collapse of states. The Lucayans the people who Columbus met are wiped out completely. The peoples have no resistance to diseases. The Inkan and Aztec empires crumble.

In the 630’s the Arabs burst forth from the Arabian deserts and embarked on some of the world’s most stunning conquests. Toppling the Sassanid Persian Empire and overrunning the Southwest Asian provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire the established an Empire that was one the most extensive and powerful for their historical era. This was possible due to the unification of the people under on religious doctrine the teachings of the Prophet Mohammed.
The Arab advancement of the 600’s, the series of stunning territorial conquests, the Empire they forged stretched from the Iberian Peninsula and Atlantic coast of North Africa in the West across the African coast of the Mediterranean to the Levantine shores of the Eastern Mediterranean to the heartland of Mesopotamia to the Iranian Plateau, the Hindu Kush and Himalayas in the East.

We will look at two the Pueblo People of the Southwest and The Mound builders of the Eastern woodlands.
The Puebloan centers were areas that thrived through interconnectedness, which played a major role in their lifespans.
The mound builders were the apogee of Eastern State building before the arrival of Columbus in 1492.

1. Farming had the same affect in the Americas that it had in Africa and Eurasia.
2. The Spread of Bean and Maize cultivation.
a. Exchanged by Meso-Americans
3. Natives has a group were the most expert farmers in the world.
a. Few domesticated animals,
i. extinction of the mega fauna.
b. The Domestication of various plants,
c. Tobacco
d. beans
e. maize
f. squash
g. sweet potatoes
h. Tomatoes
i. and potatoes
4. People adopt what they need
1. Farming develops in the desert southwest to address a slowly rising population and food concerns.
a. They start to cultivate maize which has been introduced from Meso (Middle) America
b. crossbred a particular strain chappolote and wild teocinte, the original source or Maize to produce a hybrid to meet their specific environment conditions.
c. These people were just beginning to intensely farm but were already full aware of what could be done with plants.
2. Originally just a dietary supplement to hunting and gathering.
a. Farming or sedentary agriculture supplanted hunting and gathering has the primary means of supplying food sources.
b. Around 500 bce a dietary revolution occurs with the pairing of beans with maize in the southwest.
c. Beans release nitrogen into soil helping it to retain fertility.
d. This led to the increase of community sizes, it was now possibly to support larger and larger numbers of peoples in one location.
3. A drastic change from their ancestors who had to rely on the mobility a small group offered to track animals and gather plant life while on the move.
a. The increasing population sizes foreshadows the Puebloan culture.

1. The Americas were settled very late by Comparison to other regions.
a. The only access was in the far north through Siberia-Alaska.
b. Peoples did not have the ability to cross oceans in water crafts.
c. Lack of solid archeological data and passions of people with particular view points.
d. A firestorm of controversial ferocious arguments.
2. No early humans inhabited the Americas,
a. no homo erectus,
b. Neanderthals,
c. cro magnons,
d. Austropicthicus.
e. The first to arrive were modern humans.
3. First settlement came via the Bering Strait either by land or by sea during the last Ice Age.
a. Northeast Asia fits geographically because it is where Eurasia and the Americas are closest.
b. All other theories involve a lengthy journey over open water.

We have just covered the arrival of peoples and the extinction of large animals in the new world.
1. The American buffalo or bison
a. the only large animal to survive becomes the primary food source for Paleo-Americans living in the plains.
2. The development of a unique tactic to hunt the buffaloes who lived in large herds and had an extremely large population.
3. The plains Paleo-Americans at first hunted buffalos on foot with stone tipped spears.
a. The tips descended from the Clovis points.
4. The buffalo is a difficult animal to hunt
a. they are suspicious by nature
b. are equipped with a keen sense of smell
c. are stalked in the open plains
d. required an incredible degree of coordination and sophistication.
5. The organization of buffalo drives,
a. where the animals where intentionally stampeded,
i. that is surprised and sent into flight running in one direction guided by strategically placed individuals who herded the animals into a gully, ravine or over cliffs. Those who did not die immediately from the shock of the impact were later suffocated by the weight of the other on top of them. Those on top were speared with the hunter taking special care to avoid flailing limbs and horns. Not all the buffaloes were killed the herd once alerted to the danger of that direction changed course and went to safety unpursued.
b. After the hunt was over the butchers went to work processing the carcasses.
6. The peoples of the plains carried out hunts like these for thousands of years, continuing this practice into the 19th century.
a. The bow and arrow along with the horse factor in at a later time.