Michael Hochrein
La Roche College, Department of Justice, Law and Security, Adjunct, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Special Agent (retired)
Michael J. Hochrein, B.A., retired in December, 2018 from the Federal Bureau of Investigation after more than 29 years as a Special Agent. Between 1988 and 2003, Agent Hochrein was assigned to the St. Louis, Missouri Field Office of the F.B.I. From 2003 until his retirement, Agent Hochrein was assigned to the Laurel Highlands Resident Agency of the Pittsburgh Field Division located near Johnstown, Pennsylvania. In his capacity as a Special Agent, he participated in the investigations of matters ranging from violent crimes, financial and government fraud, as well as child pornography. Former Agent Hochrein was a member of the F.B.I.’s Evidence Response Team (ERT) Program since its initiation in the mid-1990s. Within that program he helped in the development of its total station, or digital mapping, program. He also assisted State and Local Law Enforcement in the documentation of numerous crime scenes. He is currently an adjunct professor in La Roche College’s Department of Justice, Law and Security, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. There, he teaches classes and develops training environments in crime scene investigation and criminalistics. As adjunct F.B.I. faculty under the United States Department of State's Anti-terrorism Assistance Program, he provided training for international police agencies in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Southeast Asia and Africa. As an FBI-ERT team member, Mike was also deployed to sites of judicial interest in Afghanistan and Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. Within the United States, former Agent Hochrein was deployed to assist in the collection of evidence from major scenes to include the shooting and arrest scene for Boston Marathon Bombing suspect Dzhokhar Tsarnaev in 2013, the 2007 collapse of the I-35 Bridge in Minneapolis Minnesota, the 2001 attack on the World Trade Center in New York City, the 2000 aircraft crash resulting in the deaths of Missouri Governor Mel Carnahan, his brother, and an aide, and the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing of the Murrah Federal Building. He is certified in Federal and State courts as an expert in forensic archaeology and crime scene mapping. Mike Hochrein has been a member of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences since 1997, as well as the International Association for Identification since 2004, and the International Homicide Investigators Association since 2007. Other organizations with which he has been associated include The Scientific Working Group on Disaster Victim Identification, (SWGDVI), Search and Recovery Committee, as an Advisory Member since 2012, The Society for Archaeological Science since 2005; and the Society for American Archaeology since 2009.
Address: La Roche University
Department of Justice, Law and Security
9000 Babcock Boulevard,
Pittsburgh, PA 15237
Address: La Roche University
Department of Justice, Law and Security
9000 Babcock Boulevard,
Pittsburgh, PA 15237
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The topic of search dogs could be a component of a more all-encompassing category of search techniques. It is highlighted here, however, because of the routine historic use of dogs in searches for both live and deceased victims. The compiler has found the use of qualified cadaver dog teams the most efficient and cost effective means of searching large areas. By the same token, he has been frustrated by the inconsistency of some dogs and the inappropriate conduct by their handlers. Search and rescue teams will typically volunteer their efforts. A canine search is inherently a low impact technique involving minimal disruption of potential buried scenes. It is also a technique which can be implemented discretely and repeatedly as environmental conditions (ie. temperature, moisture, or vegetation), change across a search area. A drawback to the use of dogs involves confirmation of their abilities. Obviously, the best confirmation includes a history of multiple finds in the past. In the absence of such history and referrals, the nature and extent of the team’s training should be considered. The resources listed below should offer insight into proper training techniques and the use of canine search teams. The use of trained canines is only one of several search tools. The competent investigator incorporates as many tools as feasible yet does not base his investigation on one technique or resource.
An important aspect of incorporating a qualified search dog team into a law enforcement investigation is preparation through cross-training. While a member of the FBI's St. Louis Evidence Response Team, the compiler introduced outside cadaver dogs and handlers into Evidence Response Team training as a way to familiarize both teams with the capabilities and protocols of the other. Periodic testing of dogs and their handlers is a must. Search dog handlers reluctant to be tested using accepted training standards should be avoided. Likewise, investigators should not be shy in requesting documentation of finds and failed searches by search teams under consideration. Legitimate teams record those call-outs they have had and the results of same. If they do not, or only document finds without recording later discoveries missed by their dogs, then they should be avoided. As a crime scene investigator, the compiler considers legitimate those handlers who acknowledge failed searches, among their successes, in which victims' remains were missed by their dogs. Those handlers have then analyzed such experiences to determine why their dogs did not alert and to refine their training.
Consideration of search dogs should also include the conduct of their handlers. Their backgrounds, behavior, and ethics will be scrutinized in court if not by the law enforcement who use them. In 2005, internationally recognized dog handler Sandy Anderson was convicted after and investigation discovered her planting of human remains fragments at search sites. (Shepardson, 2004 and Walker, 2004 below). Unfortunately, Anderson's canine counterpart, "Eagle", had successfully located victims. This handler's unethical behavior was not necessary to enhance or validate the capabilities of her dog.
As with virtually every other category in this bibliography, technological developments attempt to improve the state of the art. Vass, et al's. (2004 through 2012) work, Furton, et al. (2015), and others in scent detection, seek to develop devices which may never replace man's best friend, but to join him as another tool in the search arsenal. With mass disasters such as the aftermath of September 11, 2001 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005, research into scent measurements is increasingly appearing in mass media and forensic science literature. Citations encountered by the compiler are included in this section. The reader is also directed to that section of this bibliography which deals with topics of Decomposition under Taphonomy.
(603 citations)
Perhaps no aspect of crime scene documentation is more important and more demonstrable than photography. The mere press of a button can lock in time a theoretically unbiased account of a scene or subject. How often have we experienced, or heard of, cases successfully resolved and adjudicated with the inclusion of accurate and complete photographs? Most investigators have also experienced the opposite situation in which too few, or poor, quality photographs are taken of a scene. For the analyst, jurist and jury person who have not had the opportunity to be at the crime scene as it was found by the investigator, photographs or videos may be the only remaining means of observing the condition of remains and environmental factors which may have affected their state. Most forensic anthropologists can relate personal horror stories of remains brought or shipped to their laboratories with little or no contextual record. Photographs of the original position of remains in their discovered context at the scene can be invaluable in such situations. An often used adage in police investigations is “film is cheap,” meaning that one can never take too many pictures of the crime scene, its contents, and its environs. Digital photographic technology advances each year with the increased ability to take more and better detailed pictures using adequate equipment affordable to most law enforcement. Smartphones now have cameras with more pixel capacity than some sole-functioning cameras.
It is inexcusable for investigators to leave a crime scene without a good photographic record. Having said that, investigators must also realize that photography is but one part of a documentation trilogy. Accurate crime scene reconstruction is best served by incorporating good photography with good diagramming or mapping, and good note taking. The three not only act as checks on the others, but also fill each other's shortcomings. For example, photographs represent a perspective and can be affected by things such as parallax. Diagrams are limited by their schematic nature; notes by their lack of visual depictions. In concert, this trilogy of documentation techniques most completely preserves and describes a scene that is temporary in time and space.
This bibliography devotes an entire category to photography and photogrammetry - The art or process of surveying or mapping via photographs, and usually aerial photographs. Several references to photogrammetric mapping may also be found in “Planning, Reconnaissance, Surveys, and Mapping Techniques”. This section of the bibliography may also include occasional references to remote sensing and satellite imagery as they utilize photogrammetry. Those citations may be cross-referenced to the section on Geophysical/Remote Sensing Technology and Applications. For more sources related to remote sensing, the reader is directed to that section.
After it is secured, the first step toward processing a crime scene is assessing and recording its position in situ as well as its relationship to other sites affected by subject(s) and victim(s). This follows tenets shared by archaeology, geotaphonomy, and general criminalistics: Crime scenes do not occur in vacuums. They entail points of access, egress, and are influenced by immediate and neighboring environmental activities. Consider cases in which lone skulls are found by pedestrians. More often than not, those skulls were once attached to remains which lie nearby. By recording the environment or context from which the skull was recovered, (beyond its mere two dimensional position within a small grid), its peri- and postmortem history may become more clear. The routine recording of elevations and topographic features such as streams, flood plains, slopes, et cetera, near remains could provide the investigator, laboratory analyst, and ultimately a jury, with information related to taphonomic processes affecting those remains and explanations for their ultimate dispositions. Too often investigators take a myopic view toward crime scenes and concentrate only on the area around the primary piece of evidence. The experienced, well-trained, and practiced crime scene investigator or archaeologist realizes three integrated and expanding spheres of any investigation: the evidence or artifact, the incident, and the event. Toward expanding perspective into the incident and event spheres of investigation, this category contains resources which generally entail topics of search or survey techniques as well as mapping methodologies and equipment. Several of the articles also apply to logistics and preparation; however, the reader is also directed to the categories of “General Crime Scene and Death Scene Investigation” and "Excavation and Recovery Strategies" for additional references which contain discussions about logistics and planning.
The most important component of planning for a forensic search or recovery is consideration of personal and team safety. Many sites suitable for the disposal of homicide victims pose significant risks to living individuals. Sites such as landfills and cesspools demonstrate one type of obvious hazard, while confined spaces such as wells, cisterns, or mine shafts represent another with less visible dangers such as carbon monoxide or structural collapse. Attention to safety extends beyond the field to laboratory and storage settings. Inadequate facilities, personal protection, or inappropriate handling of hazardous evidence or chemicals used to process evidence can put technicians and scientists at significant risk. For these reasons, this section of the bibliography begins with the topic of safety.
This category is dedicated to every investigator who has ever said or thought, “I wish I had X-Ray vision.” In the development of search technology, the area of subsurface reconnaissance is one of increasing refinement and new developments. Perhaps, one day, researchers will come upon the X-Ray vision of science fiction or cartoons. For now, geophysical prospecting is limited to the identification of subsurface anomalies using variations in electromagnetic wavelengths. The only means of precisely determining the nature or cause of those anomalies is through excavation.
Subsurface reconnaissance methods may be divided, as Killam (1990) does, into six types: non-intrusive searches, intrusive ground searches, passive geophysical prospecting, active geophysical prospecting, remote sensing, and aerial photography. Resources on topics of non-intrusive searches, intrusive ground searches, and photography (see Reconnaissance, Surveys, and Mapping Techniques, Photography, and Canines), including more primitive search methods such as probing or coring, and materials on infrared and ultraviolet aerial photography could also have been included in this category in as much as they are among the defined search methods for subterranean anomalies. The compiler reserved this category, however, for those more sophisticated applications of physics and engineering which generally require consultation with certified engineers or archaeologists trained in geophysics. The references listed below are available for investigators who wish to consult with geophysical experts on the most appropriate means of applying particular techniques to particular settings. Such consultation should include an understanding of the techniques available, their potential given the unique parameters of each search area, and their limitations given those same crime scene conditions. Some engineering firms have experience in the application of their techniques to forensic settings. For the most part, however, the geophysical or structural engineer has never participated in forensic searches for buried evidence. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the investigator to understand how the techniques might be applied, as well as the basis for data generated from such applications. Like the use of cadaver dogs, aerial photographs, and other search techniques, the tool used in the search is often less important than its operator or handler. For example, the compiler has experienced searches using ground penetrating radar in which the operators were able to run the equipment but unable to recognize the signature of a clandestine pit containing human remains. And like the use of cadaver dogs or other specialists, the investigator must not be afraid to ask for documented experience of the specialist.
The advantage to each of these techniques is their ability to limit the size of the search area. Investigators are often faced with subject or victim properties which range from small residential lots to farms or ranches of hundreds of acres. Geophysical techniques are often recommended to efficiently examine large open fields or yards. Infrared Thermography can be used to examine several acres in minutes, from an elevated platform. Ground penetrating radar has been used in the examination of large areas covered by concrete slabs which were thought to conceal buried evidence. By identifying small anomalies beneath such surfaces, manpower and cost savings are experienced in only having to core or break through small sections rather than opening the entire slab.
Some of the resources in this category are antiquated given the rapid pace of technological development in the field. Like other sections, however, these earlier articles help to shed light on the history of the field, and might offer some older, but relatively less expensive alternatives to “State of the Art” techniques. The bibliography likewise includes search techniques which are still in development as applications in forensic scenes. For example, the use of hyperspectral imaging to remotely identify skeletal elements among forest or field floor litter is now in the forensic science literature (Alsberg and Rosvold [2014], and Edelman, et al. [2012]) . Or its application to identify soil and vegetation changes over clandestine graves (Snirer and Kalacska, 2014). Readers and researchers interested in this section of the bibliography might also find useful references in Planning, Reconnaissance, Surveys and Mapping Techniques.
Geological and pedological processes of formation affect the ante-, peri-, and post-deposition of artifacts or evidence. Areas of geotaphonomy such as Stratification, Bioturbation, Compression/Depression, and Sedimentation are fundamentals of geology. An understanding of geological, pedological and hydrological processes must extend beyond the immediate crime scene feature to the surrounding environment. For example, information that a victim’s body was buried near a river ten years ago, is greatly supplemented with an understanding of the effects of soil formation, erosion, and hydraulics in a flood plain environment. The compiler encountered one such scene along the Mississippi River. After a man fishing discovered a skull and other human skeletal elements scattered across an embankment along the river, he reported the find to the local Sheriff. The systematic recovery, and three dimensional documentation of same, illustrated a pattern of distribution in which the remains were carried down the embankment in the direction of of waves that slapped against the shore. As the shore eroded over the years, it exposed and disrupted a historic burial along the river cove. Archaeologically, the distribution of cut iron nails further supported the interpretation of the scene as an eroded historical grave.
Remote sensing and photogrammetric data of topographic, geological, and botanical conditions can be used to reconstruct a history of the search or crime scene environs (See Geophysical/ Remote Sensing Technology and Applications.) Although every site will be unique, there are basic principles of stratification, superposition, and contemporaneous deposition, which have served as tenets of geology and archaeology since the seventeenth century. The impact of burrowing animals, and even earthworms, (Bioturbation), on buried objects is well documented. An awareness of the terrestrial and subterranean fauna inhabiting crime scene environs may be essential in understanding the formation and or disruption of soils containing primary, associated, and trace evidence. For this reason, the reader is directed to “Reconnaissance, Surveys, and Mapping Techniques” for general guides to the types of fauna which might inhabit a particular crime scene area. Likewise, the subsection of "Scavenging" within the section on "Taphonomy" contains references to subterranean animals which directly impact buried evidence and the subterranean feature in which they are contained.
This subsection contains references directly and indirectly addressing soil sciences including the recognition and interpretation of soils in archaeological contexts - geoarchaeology. Of interest, from the standpoint of trace evidence, are those references to cases in which geoarchaeology has been utilized not only to understanding soil formation/alteration related to buried evidence, but in identifying once buried items via trace soil evidence (ie. Adovasio, et al. [1991]). It has been the experience of the compiler that forensic scientists are generally unfamiliar with work accomplished on, and toward the interpretation of, traditional archaeological sites. Most forensic references in forensic geology concentrate on laboratory techniques and analyses, rather than formal archaeological collection of geological and pedological samples/evidence. Therefore, this section occasionally references archaeological site reports, or journal articles, citing specific site interpretations and the techniques used in those interpretations. The reader is also refered to sections such as Stable Isotope Analyses and Shoe, Foot, and Tire Impression Evidence. in as much as soil sampling is necessary for control and comparitive purposes.
(2262 citations)
Regardless of the search method which brings the investigator to a site believed to contain buried evidence, there is only one means, to date, of precisely determining what that spot contains. In making that determination, it is as important to recover and document the precise position of associated and trace evidence as it is the primary piece of evidence. It has been the compiler’s observation that law enforcement examinations of buried body crime scenes, in particular, tend to concentrate on the location and removal of the primary evidence - the body without consideration of those archaeological (geotaphonomic) features which explain its context. There is considerably less “excitement”, and therefore emphasis, on associated and trace elements. This can be extremely unfortunate given the value of such evidence in determining when, why, how, and by whom the body was deposited. The effects of time and environment on the post-depositional history of remains represent the bases of taphonomy. The lack of similar emphasis on recognizing and collecting associated and trace evidence caused the compiler to consider geotaphonomy as a legitimate area of research in forensic science.
Geotaphonomy is defined as the study of the geophysical characteristics of, and changes in, surface to subterranean features associated with the interment of buried evidence. The concept of forensic geotaphomomy developed out of a realization that investigators of clandestine graves, or other buried evidence crime scenes, lacked precedent demonstrating the possible geophysical features or conditions which could aid interpreting subterranean scenes. Although they are seldom noticed at contemporary crime scenes, many of these conditions are the bases of archaeological tenets. In geotaphonomy the features comprise six areas or classes of evidence which are introduced during and after the original excavation and backfilling of subterranean pits. The six classes of geophysical evidence include stratification, tool marks, bioturbation, sedimentation, compression/depression, and internal compaction.
In order to record the context of buried evidence, it is paramount that proper archaeological excavation techniques be applied. Often, what is described in media accounts as “archaeological excavation” for the remains of a homicide victim, are in fact merely “digging up” the remains. For the recovery to truly be archaeological, two immutable principles must be followed: the excavation must be systematic, and it must include the recognition and documentation of all contextual, or environmental, artifacts. Toward providing resources which describe, affect, and/or suggest methods in archaeology, the following citations were compiled. Included are a few specific site reports with which the compiler had access or was aware. It should be understood that thousands of such reports are prepared by academic and engineering institutions around the world. They continue to be drafted as sites of historical and archaeological significance are excavated. It would not be feasible to include even a fraction of these reports. What becomes readily apparent after a review of the following citations is the diversity of search settings, and the need to form equally diverse plans toward the excavation of these sites. As long as the principles of systematic excavation and contextual recovery are maintained, flexible excavation strategies will remain appropriate. The archaeologist receives training in soil and botanical sciences in order to understand the formation processes of those matrices into which cultural features intrude. For that reason, the reader or researcher is also referred to the categories of Geoarchaeology and Soil Science, as well as Botany and Related Areas.
(1711 citations)
Taphonomy has been defined as the study of the processes by which animal and plant remains become fossilized. The discipline arose from the work of paleontologists to explain the contexts and conditions of fossilized remains. Taphonomy, with its roots in the Greek “taphos” for tomb or burial, and “nomos”-laws, was adapted by physical anthropologists to explain, and sometimes predict, the condition and contexts of more recent and often forensically significant finds. In this respect, and especially as it applies to forensic situations, taphonomy has come generally to refer to the science of examining transitions of remains from the biosphere to the lithosphere as impacted by weather, animals, plants, biochemical reactions, and cultural factors. Marin-Arroyo,et al. (2012), Dirkmaat (2013), and Borrini and Tomba (2014), serve as some of the most recent works discussing the various forms those transitions might entail. They represent three of many sources, offered below, which demonstrate the multitude of areas currently being researched to explain reasons for, and the results of, particular transitional events. Taphonomy includes various agents of bone modification, but is not limited to that alone. Soft tissue transitions occur as do those to hair, nails, wound and other defects.
The general Taphonomy section has been broken into individual sections for topics of "Decomposition and Time Since Death", "Disease, Illness, and Physical Abnormalities", "Thermal Alterations and Influences", "Scavenging, Animal Attacks, Faunalturbation, and Bitemark Evidence", "Trauma" and "General or Miscellaneous Topics". References in each of these sections may be related to other sections of the bibliography. For example, the topic of wounds comprise part of the taphonomic record on a body or it's remains. As a result, one of the largest subsections under Taphonomy is devoted to sharp, blunt, ballistic and other traumas. Researchers interested in this subarea of taphonomy should also search Firearms and Toolmark Evidence in as much as resources on terminal ballistics or wound ballistics may be included in that section of this bibliography. Another example may include the relationship between bite marks and criminal behavior. As taphonomists, physical anthropologists are interested in both skeletal and soft tissue injuries, as well as changes to those matrices and their injuries over time. One form of taphonomic change which takes place over time is decomposition. Whether it be the formation of adipocere, diagenesis of bone, or cremation as a form of further concealment, the condition of tissues can reflect changes in environment and/or the length of time since disposal. In almost every environment where remains are disposed or concealed, animals, large and small, feed or otherwise scavenge decomposing tissue. Such modifications are addressed in a subsection on scavenging. Modifications of interest to anthropologists and pathologists can also be caused by feeding insects, to which they are refered to the section on Entomology. Another large grouping of references in this category consist of those about diseases and illness. The antemortem health of victims as reflected in their remains is as important for the forensic investigator as reflections of peri-and postmortem circumstances. Certain conditions such as bone diseases, broken bones, or the use of prosthetics, can aid investigators in identifying victims or reconstructing a victim's ability to perform certain actions associated with their deaths or disappearance.
Because of taphonomy’s roots in paleontology, many of the resources in this section deal exclusively with paleontological theory and method. Prehistoric archaeological examples of taphonomy also constitute several citations. It is important for researchers to understand the bases for theories and methodologies which have come to be applied in forensic settings. Just as traditional physical anthropology and archaeology drew upon the earlier works of paleontologists, much current work in forensic taphonomy relies upon discoveries made during the exhumation of historic and prehistoric burials. The reader is referred back to the section on "Excavation and Recovery Strategies" for additional archaeological site reports which may contain taphonomy related information. Likewise, “General Crime Scene and Death Scene Investigation” may contain research regarding wound or trauma analysis and pathology - topics which are inherently taphonomic. From wound, (or terminal), ballistics to transitional, or (external), ballistics and ultimately to initial, (or internal), ballistics, the taphonomic record of gunshot wounds is linked to the examination of firearms and ammunition. Readers interested in resources related to gunshot wounds should also refer to the category of Firearms and Toolmark Evidence. Additionally categories such as Mass Fatality and Human Rights Investigations should be reviewed for references which contain details of site environments, (ie: mass graves, building collapses), or manners of death , (ie: torture, post-blast, or crash conditions), which impact the taphonomy of remains.
Traumatic defects to soft tissue and skeletal elements may be ante-, peri-, or post-mortem in nature. Ante-mortem, their position and frequency may evidence a history of abuse, suicidal tendencies, or serve as a means of identification. Peri-mortem they evidence actions during the criminal incident and therefore the event. Ante-mortem, traumatic defects may reflect behavior by actor(s) to ritually or otherwise intentionally "harm" the victim. It might also reflect poor, inappropriate, or hurried recovery techniques. The recognition of how subtle taphonomic evidence of trauma might be, and how similar they can appear to modification by natural agents or disease, should cause the crime scene investigator to take precautions by employing appropriate recovery methods. For example, the often discussed "forensic backhoe" has little place in the recovery of buried human remains without a very precise understanding of where those remains lay within the search area. Nor should rakes, picks, maddocks, and other trauma inducing tools be used for the same reasons and especially in the hands of the untrained. This section of the Bibliography seeks to present citations about a variety of traumas associated with violent acts among individuals or to themselves.
We are defined, in part, by life experiences. Some of these experiences become part of our physical being. Obviously, injuries which fracture bones or surgeries to install medical applicances, are used to uniquely identify questioned remains. To narrow the population of possible identities, forensic anthropologists also examine remains for evidence of disease or illness. Conditions such as osteoarthritis or tuberculosis typically leave skeletal lesions which identify the afflictions long after death. More subtle may be patterns of wear or stress on skeletal elements supporting possible dominant handedness, or repeated motions and loads required by different physically demanding trades.
Articles on paleopathology are abundant in this section. In disciplines which rely predominantly on surviving skeletal elements, archaeologists and physical anthropologists have originated or advanced the analyses of diseases, illnesses, and physical abnormalities reflected in human remains. They have also advanced considerations of diet and nutrition from the chemical composition of bones as well as their physical size and condition. For this reason, the researcher interested in this section should also check out that on Stable Isotope Analyses. Just as the isotopic record is stored in our skeleton, hinting at the locations we’ve lived throughout our lives, so does the chemical composition of our remains suggest dietary deficiencies or access to more or better resources. Such considerations should draw on interest into the decedent’s cultural background or influences. For this the reader is directed to applicable citations within the Criminal and Cultural Behavior section of this bibliography.
(1457 citations)
The following citations consist of those which did not seem to fit any of the other taphonomy categories, are combinations of categories, or discuss taphonomy generally. Some address forensic anthropological techniques while others describe traumas or conditions which do not comfortably fit into the other categories under the heading Taphonomy. Many of these citations may cross-reference to other categories given their diversity. For example, someone interested in commingled human remains should check this bibliography’s section on Mass Fatality and Human Rights Investigations. As with each of the categories in this Taphonomy section, Criminal and Cultural Behavior helps explain the context of the original traumas.
(1052 citations)
The citations in this section of the bibliography address the effects of temperature ante-, peri-, and post-mortem. Hypo- and Hyperthermic reactions preceding death may account for the context of artifacts within a scene. Most crime scene investigators are familiar with the phenomenon of paradoxical undressing in which a final symptom, or reaction of hypothermia involves the afflicted feeling such a sensation of warmth that he sheds his clothing. To the untrained, or unfamiliar, eye the discarded clothing might suggest a sex-related incident. The lack of clothing on decomposed remains might also imply the death occurred on a hot day or night. In arson scenes the position of the body may appear to be defensive when what is referred to as pugilistic posture is the result of the constriction, but incomplete consumption, of muscles in the presence of extreme heat. Postmortem ambient temperatures are the basis for establishing postmortem interval using insect succession. Citatons in this section may cross-refeence to some under Entomology. Similarly, scene temperatures, over time, influence postmortem characteristics such as lividity and rigor. In that continuum of decomposition temperature is foremost in its rate of advancement. The condition under which a victim’s body might be disposed obviously influences the postmortem context in which it, and associated evidence, is found. In a buried body case of which the compiler is familiar the extremely shallow grave dug by the subject was the result of frozen soils the January night of the murder. Climate, or temperature, impact both taphonomy and geotaphonomy.
Botanical or plant evidence is often overlooked at crime scenes. Unless plant remains such as seeds, or “burrs” are found adhering to the victim’s hair or remains, incidental to the collection of the body, independent control and questioned samples of plant parts “from leaf to root” are typically not recognized as evidence. Perhaps the standards of scientists such as Hall (1988, 1997), Willey and Heilman (1987), Warren (1975, 1980, 1984), or Bock and Norris (1997), will continue to alert investigators and prosecutors to the value of plant and plant component evidence. Compilations such as Miller Coyle's Forensic Botany (2004) serve to reinforce and update developments in this critical component of crime scene analysis and reconstruction.
Forensic botany is a relatively young application of an old science. The majority of the references below address botanical and palynological collections and analyses as they relate to archaeological site deposits. For this reason, the researcher should also be aware of archaeological site reports under Excavation and Recovery Strategies which might contain information on site specific collections and analyses of plant remains. It has long been a standard in archaeology protocol to collect soil samples or “constant volume” samples for separation and identification of small plant remains. The use of this information by archaeologists to help interpret the climate and environment of sites during particular time periods, or to determine the diet of a site’s population have direct application to forensic settings. The same “answers” are often sought by crime scene investigators seeking to validate subject or witness accounts, as well as time and location of death. A reflection of forensic botany's progression along with other forensic sciences is the increased number of resources addressing research and observations in plant DNA, (Bever, et al., [2002]; Linacre, et al., [2002]; Weising, et al., [2005]; and Craft, et al., [2007] to name a few.)
This bibliography’s references in Taphonomy may also contain information/observations on the effect(s) of plant activity on disposed remains. Like entomological evidence, plant remains offer the opportunity to place remains or associated evidence in temporal and spatial contexts. Over time, plant growth may first serve to demarcate areas in which remains were disposed, and then impact the remains by utilizing them as a component of the lithosphere or biosphere. Botanical evidence also represents trace evidence which could link subject and victim and crime scene, as well as establish the movement of the subject and/or victim through a crime scene. From pollen to a rash from poison ivy, botanical clues follow Locard's principles of exchange. Trackers utilize damage to plants to find and follow paths taken by subjects and victims. The use and interpretation of botanical evidence requires holistic knowledge of crime scene environments, the accurate recording of same, and site specific conditions which might affect plant growth (see Photography, Reconnaissance, Survey, and Mapping Techniques, Excavation and Recovery Strategies, as well as Geoarchaeology and Soil Science).
The collection and analyses of insects, or invertebrates, from crime scenes is generally well known among homicide investigators and death scene investigators. It has been the compiler’s experience, however, that the actual practice of such collection, outside the presence of a forensic entomologist, is still overlooked or avoided. Often, an attitude prevails that that level of information is not necessary given the investigator’s knowledge of when an abduction took place, or a subject’s confession. In other situations, collections are not made simply because the investigators are not properly equipped with tools, chemicals, and packaging materials to collect and kill samples, or are not sure of what to do with, or how to store, live specimens. Entomological evidence is unique in that it is, in most criminal investigations, the only type of non-human evidence consisting of living, moving species. It is the hope of the compiler that this section will offer some answers toward appropriate collection procedures and equipment which are not expensive, do not involve a lot of time, or the need for additional manpower. The proper collection of entomological samples combined with accurate spatial, temporal, and environmental data, can yield valuable information toward determining postmortem intervals (Taphonomy - Decomposition and Time Since Death). Subject/Witness statements might be supported or disproved. Works such as Catts and Haskell (1990), and Lord and Burger (1983) have become standards in the field of forensic entomological procedures. In recent years compilations such as that by Byrd and Castner (2010) have demonstrated the increasing interest in forensic applications of a science which otherwise serves advancements in health and agriculture. Amendt, et al. (2007) offer "Standards and Guidelines" for this field of study. Entomology, as a means of determining post-mortem interval, continues to be scrutinized. This is not a bad thing. Any validation, clarification, or revocation of a forensic technique benefit crime scene interpretation.
Many of the works below include laboratory analyses and research. That research goes beyond addressing the timing of a death or deposition (post-mortem interval) to toxicological determinations, interpretations of death scene versus depositional environments, et cetera. Like virtually every category in this bibliography, the study of entomology is contingent upon so many factors at a scene that an understanding of other disciplines is a neccessity. Obviously, taphonomy and pathology are directly related to insect activity on discovered remains. Environmental characteristics such as soils and plants, as well as body position either by accident or intentional, could influence the impact of insects in peri- and post-mortem activity. Again, the reader is refered to other categories such as Taphonomy, Geoarchaeology and Soil Science, and Criminal and Cultural Behavior.
(2552 citations)
In this edition of the Bibliography, references to "dermal impression evidence" have been separated from those discussing forms of body modification to include tattooing, piercing, branding, et ceter. Together these types of evidence form the most traditional bases of identification. Going back to Cesare Lombroso, Francis Galton, Alphonse Bertillon, et cetera, the use of personal features to define individual identification continues to develop or evolve. Most recently, the replacement, or enhancement, of the Integratged Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) with "Next Generation Identification" (NGI) more than anything, demonstrates the needed for wholism in forensic identification.
References such as Arp (2002), Ryder (1963), or Schmidt, et al. (1996) reveal connections between fingerprints and the archaeological record. Resources such as these also demonstrate the resilience of an otherwise fragile type of trace evidence. On more recent forensic archaeological sites, the importance and application of fingerprint technology should not be overlooked. Taphonomically, developments in the preservation and development of victim's fingerprints from tissue modified by mummification or submersion are continuous. Likewise, a suspect's fingerprints on the skin of a victim's body, is a topic discussed in several of the references listed below.
The ability to develop fingerprints on handled, or discarded, items around a crime scene is, dependent on understanding the environmental and chemical conditions which may have affected those prints as well as the substrates holding the friction ridge evidence. Once those conditions and the substrate are understood, the examiner can determine the appropriate techniques, and sequence of techniques, which can be used. The proper collection of fingerprint evidence also requires familiarity with other forensic examinations which may be conducted on the item. For example, the impact of fingerprint development methods on the integrity of DNA evidence is addressed in citations such as Andersen and Bramble (1997), Azoury, et al. (2002), or Schuetts-Henderson (1983) . In this respect, the reader is best served to search for references in both this section and those on DNA Evidence, and Blood and Body Fluids Evidence.
This section also includes those citations which address other latent types of print evidence which might be found on a body or associated artifacts. Although less common, there have been instances where lip prints or ear prints have linked suspects to a crime scene. As an example of how even these types of rare latent evidence can be cross-referenced to other categories in this bibliography, consider forensic research accomplished on the composition of lipstick (Rodger, et al. [1998] or Segui, et al. [2000] in Trace and Impression Evidence). Tattoos, and other body modifications, not only serve as means of identifying victims' remains, but also can indicate cultural or ritual affiliations. Again, the linkage between archaeological recovery and body modification evidence has become literal in the recovery of ancient mummified remains, or frozen in the case of Ötzi in the Italian Alps.
With this edition of the bibliography, studies related to patterns in palatal ruggae have been relocated to the section of the bibliography containing Human Odontological and Palatal Evidence, under the Taphonomy-Scavenging, Animal Attack, Faunalturbation and Bitemark sub-section. As Next Generation Technology topics across a range of biometrics become increasingly researched, the instant section will no doubt expand, or include sub-sections for those topics.
From an archaeological perspective, numerous resources regarding the retrieval of blood and other types of trace evidence from historic and prehistoric contexts are included in this category. The compiler wishes to reinforce that evidence exposed to the elements, or deposited years prior to discovery may retain significant information capable of impacting the interpretation of a crime scene. Both here and in the sections of DNA Evidence and Stable Isotope Analyses, several citations may be found which should demonstrate for the crime scene investigator that assumptions should never be made that blood and body fluid evidence is completely obliterated from older scenes. Loy and Wood, (1989), is an early example of how blood evidence remained viable over thousands of years. That approximately 9000 year old evidence from Cayonu Tepesi in Turkey was initially realized using one of the most basic presumptive test for blood in most crime scene technicians' tool boxes - Hemastix. Again, the section on DNA Evidence contains numerous citations expounding on work such as Loy and Wood. Analyses of prehistoric trace evidence is now common in archaeological and forensic literature.
A large part of this section deals with the reconstruction of violent crime scenes based on the shape, size, and position of blood spatter, or blood stain, evidence. Primarily considered at indoor crime scenes, the same type of reconstruction could apply to outdoor scenes but becomes more difficult given the effects of weather, and substrate movement. Works such as those of MacDonnell, (1997); Bevel and Gardner, (2001); and James, Kish, and Sutton, (2003), have served to expose criminal investigators to the stories represented in patterns of what would appear to most of us as bloody Rorshak tests. Those same works and others included in this section should also demonstrate the pitfalls of interpreting blood stain evidence without adequate training, experience, and certification.
Probably the the most cross-referenced citations in this section have to do with DNA research; however, the researcher is also directed to sections on Photography, Fingerprint, Ear Print, Lip Print, and Tattoo Evidence, Firearms and Toolmark Evidence, Shoe and Tire Impression Evidence, and General Crime Scene and Death Scene Investigation Topics, for techniques in recording blood pattern evidence and bloody transfers in form of patent and latent prints involving body and clothing segments.
The topic of DNA is so thoroughly linked to forensic science, that it is assumed in almost every violentcrimes case. A reflection of its ubiquity may be that this section of the bibliography contains the largest number of citations. This section primarily addresses human DNA; however; plant and non-human animal DNA are increasingly playing part in criminal investigations. Conservation Agents often use DNA to solve pouching cases, and plant DNA has been used to identify or link illicit drug evidence such as marijuana to scenes and suspects.
This is perhaps the single most cross-referenced category of the bibliography. One can understand why since almost every material at a crime scene may hold viable DNA evidence as a substrate or questioned sample. For example the soil in a grave from which a body was moved could contain decompitus bearing the victim's DNA; the thorns of a bush which scratched a subject while he disposed of a body could bear his DNA; biting insects have been found to contain viable amounts of DNA related to victims or suspects; and firearms might hold the DNA from the individuaul how gripped the gun while the barrel contains victim blood or tissue blown back toward the gun and suspect. This category also includes references which are, or could be included in that of Geoarchaeology and Soil Science or Excavation and Recovery Strategies. Many examples, such as Burger (2002) or Stone and Stoneking (1999) discuss the identification of ancient DNA in spite of the burial of the substrates or their exposure to the elements.
The refinement of DNA technology continues to require smaller and smaller amounts of material for examination. Likewise, age and contamination issues are addressed in many citations. Proper collection techniques are not only topics of some references below but also in general crime scene investigation references contained in General Crime Scene and Death Scene Investigation Topics.
(6513 citations)
Popular and scientific references to the use of stable isotopes in identifying skeletal remains; or, more accurately, identifying geographical ranges in which the decedent may have lived, are the focus of this section. It also includes topics such as Carbon 14 dating and bomb pulse data. Stable isotope analyses may provide investigators clues to the spatial history of unidentified victims. Our bones and teeth, throughout our lives become reservoirs for those chemical elements to which we are exposed. The longer those exposures to the varied concentrations of different elements in different areas of the world, the more likely the victim can be determined as having resided in a particular area. By knowing the areas inhabited by a victim, the more likely investigators will be able to track down his, or her, identity. Unlike radioactive isotopes, stable isotopes never disintegrate. Schwarz, (2007), provides a good example of the forensic value of stable isotopes:
"Most of the O atoms in our body come from the water we drink, and is usually isotopically like the precipitation where we live. Therefore, we can often learn where a person lived from the isotopic composition of their teeth and bones. Fortunately, we now have maps showing the distribution of 18O/16O ratios in precipitation falling over North America and Europe which we can use to help trace the place of origin of a murder victim. Even burned remains can be analyzed this way."
(Schwarz, 2007:28)
Like DNA, stable isotope analyses will continue to be developed and be refined. And like DNA analyses, it may someday be a staple in the forensic scientist's toolbox.
Because stable isotope analysis is so dependent on the proper collection of known environmental samples, the researcher is also referred to the section Geoarchaeology and Soil Science. Our culture obviously impacts and reflects where we live and what we consume. For those reasons, the researcher may find useful citations in the section entitled Criminal and Cultural Behavior. That said, crime scene investigators should also remember that other animal species and plant life associated with crime scenes, also reflect stable isotope signatures which may aid in reconstructing crime scene events.
(2076 citations)
The references in this section address the three primary topics of forensic firearms and ammunition analysis: Internal or Initial Ballistics, External or Transitional Ballistics, and Terminal or Wound Ballistics. Of those topics, those concerning wounds are contained in, or cross referenced to the subsection of trauma within this bibliography's Taphonomy section. The effects of gunshot residues on materials near discharged weapons may impact trace evidence such as hairs and fibers, as well as substrates such as the human skin of both the victim and suspect. It is not only firearms which are addressed, however; the science of ballistics also affects projectiles of any description.
Because the examination of bullets and cartridges is a primary area of tool mark examination, this section also includes that on "General Toolmark Evidence". Beyond ammunition, tool mark examinations include impressions left by cutting or prying tools used in burglaries or forced entries. They also comprise a major component of Geotaphonomy in the form of toolmarks left by digging implements in the walls of pits used to conceal buried evidence, or the backdirt of same (Hochrein [1997]). Fingers, teeth, and feet are, technically, tools which can also leave impressions or marks on victims or other substrates at a crime scene. For this reason, the reader is directed to the categories of Trace and Impression Evidence, and "Bitemark Evidence" in Taphonomy, citations which discuss such marks.
References in this section, like fingerprints, ballistics, and blood evidence, are most often thought of in traditional criminalistics or police sciences. Some of the references below date to the early days of forensics and criminalistics. This section is included because it represents one of the six areas comprising Geotaphonomy: Stratification, Tool Marks, Bioturbation, Sedimentation, Compression/Depression (foot and shoe prints), and Internal Compaction. In addition to the recovery and interpretation of impression evidence, other trace evidence which might be found on surface and subsurface death scenes are cited. Entomological and botanical evidence also constitute trace items left or taken from crime scenes. Because of the number of works referencing those topics, they are addressed in respective sections in this bibliography. Some citations in this section could also be cross-referenced with those in Taphonomy given their discussion of the detioration, or decomposition of hairs and fibers among victims' remains or contamination of impression evidence through prolonged exposure at crime scenes.
When this compiler first became interested in forensic science, one of the first references he read, and which most influenced subsequent processing of scenes and research, was Crime Investigation by Paul Kirk (1974). In that paper the words of Kirk serve as the foundation for collecting trace evidence at any scene regardless its age or condition:
"Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as silent witness against him. Not only his fingerprints or his foot prints, but his hair, the fibers from his clothing, the glass he breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or semen he deposits or collects. All of these and more bear mute witness against him. This evidence does not forget. It is not confused by the excitement of the moment. It is not absent because human witnesses are. It is factual evidence. Pysical evidence cannot be wrong. It cannot perure itself. It cannot be wholly absent. Only its interpretation can err. Only human failure to fint it, study and understand it, can diminish its value."