S. Lennon
Indiana University, Apparel Merchandising and Interior Design, Faculty Member
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The purpose of this study was to compare the concepts related to formal wear and casual wear, the expression image far formal wear and casual wear, the criteria for clothing selection, the most appropriate clothing for the specific... more
The purpose of this study was to compare the concepts related to formal wear and casual wear, the expression image far formal wear and casual wear, the criteria for clothing selection, the most appropriate clothing for the specific situation, the price range, the kinds of accessories matched with clothing, the time for purchase, the patronage site, and the appropriate colors fur formal wear and casual wear. The total of 396 consumers, 20s' and 40s' female consumers in Korea and America were sampled in both countries. The sampling places were college campus, business district, department stores, and shopping mall in Seoul and Columbus, Ohio. Formal wear and casual wear were selected as survey items. The results showed that the consumers in both countries revealed emic and etic phenomena. Based on the results of this survey, the fundamental information and implications for clothing shopping behaviors in Korea and America can be provided.
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This research provides a comprehensive descriptive content analysis of empirical research focused on muscularity and published in refereed journals from 2000 through 2019. This article presents the first part of a two-part series. In this... more
This research provides a comprehensive descriptive content analysis of empirical research focused on muscularity and published in refereed journals from 2000 through 2019. This article presents the first part of a two-part series. In this part, the research aims were to characterize the research on muscularity with respect to the methods of inquiry and participant demographics. Specific research questions were: what methods of inquiry (e.g. research strategy, data analyses, sampling, use of hypotheses) describe this research? And what demographics describe the participants in this research? Multiple databases were searched to locate relevant research. This search resulted in 176 empirical articles published in English that contained 203 studies. The descriptive content analysis revealed that researchers primarily conducted cross-sectional research using survey methodology and intermediate levels of statistical analysis. Research questions/hypotheses were often absent. About three ti...
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Abstract Addressing the growing adoption of Black Friday (BF) promotions and related BF misbehavior in the US and elsewhere, we examined the mechanism by which emotions, self-control, and public self-consciousness impact BF consumer... more
Abstract Addressing the growing adoption of Black Friday (BF) promotions and related BF misbehavior in the US and elsewhere, we examined the mechanism by which emotions, self-control, and public self-consciousness impact BF consumer misbehavior. We also investigated to what extent women and men differ with regard to how these variables affect misbehavior on BF. Student participants were former in-store BF shoppers (n = 411) who completed an online questionnaire. Emotions evoked via scenarios simulating realistic BF shopping situations affected the likelihood of engaging in BF misbehavior for both men and women. Both negative emotion (anger) and positive emotion (thrill) increased the likelihood of misbehaving on BF. There were sex differences in how self-control and public self-consciousness impacted BF misbehavior. For men, self-control had both a direct and moderating effect on the likelihood of BF misbehavior, but it had no impact on women. Self-control reduced men’s likelihood of misbehavior despite anger aroused on BF. For women, public self-consciousness moderated how anger affected misbehavior likelihood, but not for men. Findings offer new insights into factors fueling and inhibiting potential misbehavior on BF.
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Many luxury firms have successfully adopted online sales and online sales growth has outperformed offline sales growth. As online luxury sales continue to grow, service expectations in digital and instore channels are also expected to... more
Many luxury firms have successfully adopted online sales and online sales growth has outperformed offline sales growth. As online luxury sales continue to grow, service expectations in digital and instore channels are also expected to grow. To add to the research literature, the top performing 46 luxury apparel and accessories websites identified in the Luxury e-Commerce Report from Internet Retailer were content analyzed to determine the state of the art in top performing luxury retail websites in providing needed information (international customer service attributes). Those top performing websites were then compared to 44 randomly selected similar websites on the same attributes to determine how the two groups of websites compared in terms of international customer service attributes. Although top performing luxury retail websites are providing important customer service information that facilitates online purchasing, there is room for improvement. In comparing the two groups of ...
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The Chinese market is attractive to foreign-brand apparel manufacturers who have increasing access to the market as China’s economy has undergone a major transformation from a centrally planned to a market economy and has experienced... more
The Chinese market is attractive to foreign-brand apparel manufacturers who have increasing access to the market as China’s economy has undergone a major transformation from a centrally planned to a market economy and has experienced continued growth. Because of China’s current economic transition and its status as a developing country, the channels for distributing foreign-brand apparel products to Chinese retailers presents special obstacles that foreigners may not anticipate. We detail the distribution channels for foreign-brand apparel in the Chinese market and identify problems in the channels. Because the Chinese government intervenes in the distribution channels in China, the role of the government in apparel distribution channels was also investigated. In-depth interviews were conducted with nine apparel retailers, three government officials, and one foreign-trade agent. Additionally, we surveyed 150 Beijing retailers who sell foreign-brand apparel. Contributions to the rese...
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There were two objectives of this study: (a) to test the cross-cultural applicability of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentional Model by studying Chinese consumers’ purchase intentions for apparel made in the United States and (b) to examine... more
There were two objectives of this study: (a) to test the cross-cultural applicability of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentional Model by studying Chinese consumers’ purchase intentions for apparel made in the United States and (b) to examine whether culture could enhance the validity of the model. Parents (N = 2,017) of students in the public school systems of Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou completed usable questionnaires. Attitude toward purchasing apparel made in the United States (Ab) significantly influenced Chinese purchase intentions for that apparel (BI), but subjective norms (SN) did not. The validity of the Fishbein model may be product dependent, with culturally symbolic products influenced by both attitude and subjective norm, and products less culturally symbolic influenced only by attitudes. Adding cultural components to the Fishbein model enhanced its ability to explain purchase intentions.
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This is the first of two articles in which we argue that textiles and clothing research has relevance for the legal system in the United States in several different contexts. In this paper we highlight textiles and clothing scholarship... more
This is the first of two articles in which we argue that textiles and clothing research has relevance for the legal system in the United States in several different contexts. In this paper we highlight textiles and clothing scholarship and illustrate how that scholarship could be used to inform legal practices or legislative action in the United States regarding sexual harassment and sexual assault. Textiles and clothing researchers have demonstrated that dress conveys both accurate and inaccurate messages about the wearer. However, it is evident from statutes and written judicial decisions (caselaw) that the legal community often assumes that dress accurately indicates the wearer's attitude or intent. Yet in so doing, the legal system may be relying on inaccurate inferences to inform judgments and render decisions. Recommendations are suggested for research and policy linkages between textiles and clothing research and law.
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The purpose of this study was to explore impulsivity as a motivation for television apparel shopping and to investigate impulse buying, parasocial interaction, television exposure, and television shopping program exposure among television... more
The purpose of this study was to explore impulsivity as a motivation for television apparel shopping and to investigate impulse buying, parasocial interaction, television exposure, and television shopping program exposure among television apparel shoppers. One hundred fifty-four questionnaires were returned from television apparel shoppers. A content analysis revealed four broad categories of motivations for television shopping for apparel. Using simple regression analyses, the present research found (a) a positive relationship between impulse buying and television shopping exposure, (b) a positive relationship between impulse buying and parasocial interaction, and (c) positive relationships between parasocial interaction and both television shopping exposure and television exposure.
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The contemporary ideal standard offemale beauty in the Western world is based on thinness, attractiveness, and fitness. Women are enculturated to monitor these personal characteristics, and to construct their appearances to meet these... more
The contemporary ideal standard offemale beauty in the Western world is based on thinness, attractiveness, and fitness. Women are enculturated to monitor these personal characteristics, and to construct their appearances to meet these normative expectations. Because most body image research to date has focused on quantitative methods of assessing the complex interrelationships among variables, women's "lived experiences" were examined through a qualitative study of 95 college women to explore the subjective nature of body satisfaction, the extent to which agency and control influence the construction of appearance, and what appearance-management behaviors are typically practiced andlor advisable. Nine themes emerged from the written essays. The most common theme was risky appearance-management behaviors that were practiced in response to gendered social norms, indicating the prevalent feeling that the body is malleable and considered to be under individual control. Com...
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In any field it is important to understand how knowledge is produced and how the production of knowledge affects what is known. Put another way, how have the conclusions drawn from research in textiles, clothing, and human behavior been... more
In any field it is important to understand how knowledge is produced and how the production of knowledge affects what is known. Put another way, how have the conclusions drawn from research in textiles, clothing, and human behavior been structured by and affected by the research questions posed, the methods used to collect data, or even the training of its scholars? In this paper we offer a matrix of dimensions as an outline for analyzing research focusing on human behavior as it is related to textiles and clothing. Five broad dimensions are suggested for use in organizing research and in providing insight as to how knowledge in this field has been produced: (a) type of strategy used, (b) time frame, (c) origin of data elicited, (d) technique of data elicitation, and (e) qualitative or quantitative treatment of data. Each dimension is discussed, examples are provided, and related limitations are presented. Given the dimensions presented, we conclude with a discussion of how knowledg...
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The present research modeled research on trait descriptive adjectives (Anderson, 1968, 1971, 1974, 1979; Zanna and Hamilton, 1972) and examined the manner in which the impact of a target physical appearance cue changes as a function of... more
The present research modeled research on trait descriptive adjectives (Anderson, 1968, 1971, 1974, 1979; Zanna and Hamilton, 1972) and examined the manner in which the impact of a target physical appearance cue changes as a function of the number and type of other identifiable physical appearance cues available. In a procedure similar to that used by Zanna and Hamilton (1972), subjects viewed and rated 16 slides of stimulus persons, each of which varied in physical appearance. The 16 slides were developed from a factorial combination of four specific physical appearance cues identified in terms of deviations from a standard. Three separate experiments were conducted. The physical appearance cues were categorized into two types according to whether they were relevant for social situations or task-related situations. A 25 factorial design was used with repeated measurements on each factor. In accord with the basic theory, it was hypothesized that the impact of a single physical appear...
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Body image is the mental picture we have of our bodies, has both perceptual and affective components, affects how we interact with clothes, and affects how that clothed appearance is presented publicly. The purpose of this article is to... more
Body image is the mental picture we have of our bodies, has both perceptual and affective components, affects how we interact with clothes, and affects how that clothed appearance is presented publicly. The purpose of this article is to theoretically justify the inclusion of body image in textiles and clothing subject matter in institutions of higher education. Although pioneering efforts have addressed the body from aesthetic and social psychological standpoints, no theoretical justification integrates both aesthetic theory and social psychological concepts as applied to body image. We present discussions of both aesthetic and social psychological theories and concepts related to body image, make suggestions for curricular strategies at both undergraduate and graduate levels, and provide links to various stakeholders. We argue that textiles and clothing educators have a significant role to play in research, education, and outreach efforts related to body image and appearance-relate...
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The purpose of this study was to investigate organizational factors that influence buying/sourcing professionals' socially responsible buying/sourcing (SRB) effort. Survey responses from buying/sourcing professionals from U.S.... more
The purpose of this study was to investigate organizational factors that influence buying/sourcing professionals' socially responsible buying/sourcing (SRB) effort. Survey responses from buying/sourcing professionals from U.S. apparel/shoe companies were analyzed using MANOVA. Analysis revealed that SRB consisted of three dimensions: employment/human rights, environment, and consumer safety. The presence of vendor monitoring and perceived top management support were significantly related to the extent to which buying/sourcing professionals consider SRB when making buying decisions. Buying policy, punishment system(s), a special SRB department or specialist, and perceived ethics and social responsibility of peers had no significant multivariate effects on SRB. Suggestions for industry practitioners in organizational control issues and for researchers in future research issues are also discussed.
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We investigated the discrepancy between women's actual and ideal appearance and its relationship to body image, mood, and self-esteem. In a two-part experimental design, 88 college women completed measures of appearance... more
We investigated the discrepancy between women's actual and ideal appearance and its relationship to body image, mood, and self-esteem. In a two-part experimental design, 88 college women completed measures of appearance self-discrepancy and appearance self-schema. Two weeks later they were exposed to 16 photos of attractive media images and subsequently completed measures of mood, body image, and self esteem. One-way between subjects multivariate and univariate analyses of variance revealed that appearance self-discrepancy was related to all the body image variables and self-esteem, but not to the mood variables. Appearance self-schema may better explain body image than appearance self-discrepancy. Results are discussed in light of self-discrepancy theory, schema theory, and the Rudd and Lennon (1994) model of body aesthetics.
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As expected fewer shoppers among 40 men and 40 women invaded the personal space of a female dyad when one member of the dyad appeared to be pregnant and when the members of the dyad were conversing.
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The classical conditioning theory of learning was used to predict the attitudes of junior high students toward spending for designer jeans. Two groups of junior high (mean age = 13.3 years) home economics students (N = 44) viewed and... more
The classical conditioning theory of learning was used to predict the attitudes of junior high students toward spending for designer jeans. Two groups of junior high (mean age = 13.3 years) home economics students (N = 44) viewed and responded to four slides of designer or status jeans and four slides of nondesigner jeans. In addition, half the subjects were exposed to designer hangtags, and half were not. Thus, the design of the experiment was a mixed model two X two analysis of variance. In accord with recent research on designer jeans, it was predicted and found that junior high students were likely to say that in comparison to the nondesigner jeans, they would spend more for the designer jeans, select them more often as gifts, and purchase them more often for themselves. It also was found that the junior high students were more likely to say they would select a pair of jeans as a gift when the hangtags were present but were more likely to say they would purchase the jeans for themselves in the absence of the hangtags. There were no interactions. Classical conditioning theory is used to explain the results and to offer avenues for further research.
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Apparel retailers are seeking a competitive advantage over other companies and good salesperson service may be a way to create that advantage; however, management may institute policies that are barriers to good salesperson service and... more
Apparel retailers are seeking a competitive advantage over other companies and good salesperson service may be a way to create that advantage; however, management may institute policies that are barriers to good salesperson service and thus lose that competitive advantage. In a 2 by 2 laboratory experiment 200 volunteer college women viewed slides of a store's interior, listened to a tape of a salesperson resolving a problem according to store policy, and indicated their satisfaction and patronage intent. Results suggest that in many situations, dissatisfaction with salesperson service may be the result of policies instituted by management which fail to meet customer expectations.
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There is little research that addresses methodological issues in the context of e-service quality. This study content analyzed e-service quality articles published between 2003 and 2013 to assess methodological issues in this field.... more
There is little research that addresses methodological issues in the context of e-service quality. This study content analyzed e-service quality articles published between 2003 and 2013 to assess methodological issues in this field. Sampling methods (probability vs. nonprobability), use of undergraduates (UGs) in research, service context, geographic location, demographic information, research strategy, and justification for the use of UGs were identified as key variables. In addition, the authors argued for the need to conduct replications in research on e-service quality. A total of 72 research articles on e-service and e-service quality were content analyzed. All articles focused primarily on e-service quality in the context of B2C e-retailing. On the basis of the findings the present study provides several suggestions that should receive close attention from e-service quality researchers.
The Rudd and Lennon (1994) model of body aesthetics is used in this research to guide research investigating relationships among body image, attitudes toward gender roles, and self-esteem. Questionnaires were completed by 202 Korean... more
The Rudd and Lennon (1994) model of body aesthetics is used in this research to guide research investigating relationships among body image, attitudes toward gender roles, and self-esteem. Questionnaires were completed by 202 Korean college women, 52 Singaporean college women, 171 African-American college women, and 109 Caucasian-American college women. Significant differences were found among the groups on gender ideology, self-esteem, and the body image variables. African-American college women had the highest self-esteem and appearance evaluation scores. More importantly, however, across all groups high self-esteem was associated with positive body images and non-traditional attitudes toward gender roles. Additionally, social group membership and individualism were related to body image. Results are explained within the context of the Rudd and Lennon (1994) model of body aesthetics and suggestions are offered for future research within that context.
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Our research, based on symbolic interaction, was designed to investigate customer-salesperson interactions as a function of unmanipulated customer dress within retail settings using fieldwork. Th rough structured observations in three... more
Our research, based on symbolic interaction, was designed to investigate customer-salesperson interactions as a function of unmanipulated customer dress within retail settings using fieldwork. Th rough structured observations in three apparel stores for large size women, we rated customers' dress and friendliness of salespeople and promptness of service. MANOVA results showed that both friendliness and promptness of service were affected by customer dress. Considering the increasing importance of service quality in the retail setting, salespeople need to be trained to be friendly to all customers regardless of customers' dress. In addition, retailers may want to educate salespeople on stereotypes commonly associated with customers' dress and advise them not to rely on such stereotypes. Sales-people need to be alert and conscious of their behaviors in service encounters.
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Content analysis of diet advertisements was performed to examine how diet advertisements portray the Western ideal of feminine beauty and promote dieting in Korean women's magazines in comparison with U.S. women's magazines.... more
Content analysis of diet advertisements was performed to examine how diet advertisements portray the Western ideal of feminine beauty and promote dieting in Korean women's magazines in comparison with U.S. women's magazines. Results showed that the Western cultural ideal of feminine beauty and dieting were prevalent in Korean women's magazines. Diet advertisements in Korean magazines appear to promote more passive dieting methods (e.g., diet pills, aroma therapy, diet crème, or diet drinks) than active dieting methods (e.g., exercise). Results further indicated that women may be misled to believe that dieting is simple, easy, quick, and effective without pain, if they consume the advertised product. This study suggests that there is an urgent need to establish government regulations or policies about diet products and their claims in Korea. Magazine publishers also need to recognize their role in societal well-being and accept some responsibility for advertisements in th...
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The purpose of this article is to present a comprehensive review and analysis of published research that investigated relationships between the dress of an individual and how that dress affected others' behavior toward the individual.... more
The purpose of this article is to present a comprehensive review and analysis of published research that investigated relationships between the dress of an individual and how that dress affected others' behavior toward the individual. Existing published research was analyzed to determine the types of behaviors investigated, the types of dress manipulations, whether dress had a significant effect, theory used to guide the research, and who the participant population was in the research. Research methods were also reviewed. Sources of data were 93 studies published from 1955 to 2004. Researchers overwhelmingly investigated helping behavior. The most frequently operationalized concepts using dress manipulations were labeled “dress,” “status,” and “attractiveness.” Researchers using dress or attractiveness or attire as the primary dress manipulation did not necessarily control for other dress variables (e.g., makeup, hair-style) in their research. Most of this research was not guide...