Volodymyr Pylypenko

Abstract.
The article is dedicated to the analysis of Ukrainian Cossacks’ image in the “Chronicle” by the Polish historian Wespazjan Kochowski. Wespazyan Kochowski was one of the most famous Polish historians of the 17th century. He was a court historian for Jan III Sobieski. He not only described historical events, but also participated in many of them. Thus, Kochowski fought as a part of the Polish army against the Cossacks in the mid-17th century. His historical chronicle “Annalium Poloniae ab obitu Vladislaus IV Climacteres”, better known in the Ukrainian history as “Polish Annals”, had a significant impact on the formation of the image of the Cossacks and the Cossack wars.
In his “Chronicle”, Kochowski portrayed the Cossack army as “innumerable”, and called them “gang” and “crowd”. Such characterizations were offensive and humiliated the enemy. At the same time, it should be noted that Kochowski described Khmelnytsky and some other Cossack leaders in details. In this way, his text differed from most descriptions of the wars with the Cossacks created by other Polish historians of the 17th century. No less interesting is the description of Bohdan Khmelnytsky as the ruler of certain territories. Kochowski could not deny the fact that Khmelnytsky's power extended over large areas, so in his description he used the terms from political theory that portrayed Khmelnytsky as an illegitimate ruler.
Keywords: W. Kochowski, “Polish Annals”, historiography, Cossacks, Cossack Hetmanate.

FOOD AS A MARKER OF ANOTHER: FOOD TRADITIONS OF TARTAR IN THE DESCRIPTIONS OF POLISH AUTHORS .
The goal of the research. To determine how food traditions were used to mark others in the political culture of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth on the basis of the texts of Polish literature of the Early Modern period.
Objectives. To determine how the authors of the texts describe what products Tatars use, how they are cooked and how they are consumed. With the help of such information, alienation of the enemy, his civilizational humiliation takes place.
Actualization. For centuries, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had close relations with the "Eastern world": trade took place, wars took place from time to time, and diplomatic relations was maintained. By the middle of the 17th century, the theme of the East remained one of the popular themes in the literature of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. All this made the level of knowledge about the culture and lifestyle of the eastern neighbors of the Polish-Lithuanian state quite high. But this did not prevent publicists from using information about the traditions and daily life of the peoples of the East, and especially the Tatars, tangentially, in order to demonstrate their own cultural superiority over their neighbors. And the description of food traditions of the Tatars was one of the ways of such a demonstration.
The scientific novelty lies in the fact that the study of food traditions is interpreted not in the context of ethnography, but of the political culture of the early modern period.
Conclusions. With the help of descriptions of Tatar food, methods of preparation and consumption contained in Polish journalistic and historical-geographical texts, the authors tried to demonstrate the cultural or civilizational backwardness of the Tatars. For this, they used symbols that are understandable for readers.

   Метою роботи є проаналізувати образ українського козацтва у творах польського поета середини XVII ст. Самуеля Твардовського. Завдання роботи: визначити, якими термінами користувався Твардовський для опису українського козацтва, що ці терміни означали для освічених читачів XVII ст., як змінювалися описи козацтва в творах Твардовського. Актуалізація теми. Українське козацтво лишається однією з популярних тем в українській історіографії. Але окрім досліджень історії власне козацтва, цікаво поглянути на козацтво з іншого боку – зрозуміти, як бачила козаків польська інтелектуальна еліта, які способи вирішення конфліктів вони пропонували.   Самуель Твардовський був одним із відомих письменників сер. XVII ст. Його вплив на розвиток польської літератури визнавали вже сучасники. До теми українського козацтва він звернувся досить пізно, тоді, коли вже не було сенсу її ігнорувати. На мою думку, «відсутність» козаків у текстах Твардовського протягом 1630–1640 рp. можна пояснити тим, що поет ...

The goal of the research. To determine the attitude to books among educated representatives of the Cossack elite in Hetmanship on the basis of the diaries.
Tasks of the research. To identify mentions of books and printed products in the diaries, catalog what was done with the books, outline the attitude of the authors of the diaries to the book.
Actualization of research. The Ukrainian Cossack elite, as the stratum of society, has been studied thoroughly by researchers for at least three centuries. During this time, the historical paradigm and, as a result, the assessment of the activities of the Cossack foreman changed several times. Today, there is a demand in society for the history of its own, not foreign, elites such as the Russian nobility. That is why there is a growing interest in the study of various spheres of life of Cossack elite. This allows us to look at them not only as warriors, but also as the stratum of society that arose and developed, tried to realize itself, fought for its own existence. Good education is necessary for the political elite of the state, and the elite began to care about the education of children from the end of the 17th century. During educational process, respect for the book was established. This can be seen from the diaries by Yakiv Markovych, Mykola Khanenko, and Petro Apostol. Their diaries have survived to present times.
The scientific novelty of the work is to comprehensively highlight the role of the book, represented in the diaries of Cossack elite representatives of the 18th century.
Conclusions. The texts of the diaries make it possible to catalog the nomenclature of actions related to the book. It’s true that books were bought, donated, borrowed, ordered from abroad, copied, sent to each other. Mentions of library cataloging, constant reminders to various addressees to return a borrowed book, significant expenses for the purchase of books and the services of introbinders testify to the careful attitude towards the book.
Key words: Cossack elite, memoirs, leisure, Hetmanship of the 18th century.

Мета роботи. На матеріалах особистого щоденника генерального підскарбія Якова Марковича (1696-1770 рр.) визначити особливості дозвілля генеральної старшини у першій половині XVIII століття.
Завдання роботи. Визначити особливості дозвілля Якова Марковича, що представлені у його щоденнику. Проаналізувати найбільш характерні способи проведення дозвілля Марковичем.
Актуалізація теми пов'язана зі зростанням інтересу до історії козацької старшини, як до провідного стану українського суспільства середини XVII-XVIII століть. Дослідження історії старшинських родин дає можливість побачити їх не лише як воїнів, що проводять більшість життя у походах, а як суспільний стан, що мав високий рівень освіти та інтелектуальні потреби, що виростали із цієї освіти, як меценатів культури, як провідників новітніх культурних та політичних ідей, що проникали в українське суспільство XVIII століття.
Наукова новизна роботи полягає у спробі комплексного висвітлення дозвілля Якова Марковича, репрезентованого у щоденнику.
Висновки. У дозвіллі Якова Марковича поєднувалися як типові, так і індивідуальні риси. Характерним було часте відвідування різних бенкетів, турбота про господарство, азартні ігри та полювання. Індивідуальним – глибока зацікавленість літературою, поетичні вправи впродовж усього життя, турбота про здоров'я. Однією із звичок, до якої автор повертався постійно, було захоплення літературою. Він не лише бу активним читачем, а і сам займався творчістю та перекладами священних текстів. На сторінках щоденника ми бачимо людину, яка не цурається насолод, але дбає про інтелект і не забуває про справи духовні.
Ключові слова: щоденник Якова Марковича, спосіб життя, козацька старшина, дозвілля, повсякдення.

Pylypenko V. – PhD in History, assistant professor of Taras Shevchenko "Chernihiv Collegium" National University, Hetmana Polubotka Str., 53, Chernihiv, 14000, Ukraine
(pylvova@gmail.com )
ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2133-243X

The article is devoted to the castle in Liubech, an important defensive point on the Dnieper, which allowed to control the roads to Kiev and Chernihiv. The description of the castle was made according to the inspection notes by the Polish nobleman Stanislav Myshko in 1606. The combination of archaeological and written sources allows to make an exact description of the castle of Liubech.
Key words: Liubech, the castle, the inspection, the fortification.

Falsifications and their usage in anti-Turkish discourse in the Commonwealth of 16-17 centuries are under analysis in the article. Position of the nobility played an important role in the political system of the Commonwealth, because it was the gentry that approved all the decisions of the monarch. Different methods including false documents were used to influence and formulate public opinion. This group of documents included letters from the Sultan to the King of the Commonwealth, false correspondence between monarchs, sultan letters to the gentry, false agreements on the formation of an anti-Turkish Christian coalition.
The first paper that is analyzed in the article is a letter from the Persian Shah Abbas to King Sigismund. Letter dated November 22, 1605. The letter is probably connected with the attempts of the Habsburgs to draw the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to the anti-Turkish league, which Vienna tried to organized in the early 17th century. The text was written on the eve of the Sejm in order to promote the idea of an offensive war against the Ottoman Empire.
In another false letter from the Sultan to Sigismund III dated July 26, 1618, the author accuses Polish King of trying to break peace and to start war between the Porta and Warsaw.
Another kind of false documents is information about alliance of Christian states for the war against the Turks. For example, Martin Pashkovsky used such information in his poem in 1620. The poet appealed on the Poles to join in a joint struggle. False correspondence between monarchs of different states and the sultan well known in European countries. Such letters contained peace proposals, threats etc. In my opinion, the spread of false correspondence with the Sultan indicated the importance of the problem of the Turkish threat for European politics.
Depending on the purpose, the form of forgery was determined as well as the time of its promulgation. Falsifications were often spread before the Sejm. Irrespective of the addressee, such texts were supposed to have an impact on the political life of the Polish-Lithuanian state and push Warsaw to the war with the Ottoman Empire.
Some of the fakes had a long history and were used several times over the years.
Key words: fake, correspondence, political journalism, political discourse.

The article is devoted to the letter, which was probably sent to the King of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the Persian Shah Abbas the Great in the beginning of the XVIIth century. Shah Abbas the Great proposed to organize antiturkish coalition. The contents of the letter and circumstance of its origin are analyzed. Also the arguments for letters authenticity and Ukrainian translation are suggested.
Keywords: letter, Persia, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Ottoman Empire, the war.

The article is dedicated to the ideas of antiturkish caolotion of PolishLithuanian
Commonwealth and Persia in the middle of the XVI – the middle of the XVII c. The ways
of expansion of information about Persia in PolishLithuanian Commonwealth are under
analysis. The reasons of their failure are distinguished.
Key words: PolishLithuanian Commonwealth, Persia, Ottoman empire, international
relations, politician publicism.

The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had difficult relations with the Ottoman Empire. The country often proclaimed its readiness to either begin the Great War against the Turks or join it. However, it tried to escape the war by all means.
In a big amount of political literature dedicated to Turkey, which can be de divided into two groups according to the origin, one can find many descriptions of Istanbul, its topography and lifestyle.
Some books written by witnesses (merchants, travelers, diplomats) are more objective, the characteristics – more precise, and full of details. 
Others belong to people who never visited Istanbul and retold somebody’s stories.
They are not profound and full of stereotypes and toposes.
Istanbul was depicted as a big city. Authors described mosques, but emphasized they used to be Christian churches trying to show the Christian past of the city. 
Many Christians (both slaves and free people) in Istanbul were mentioned.
The Polish hoped for their support in case of war.
Giving old and new names of Constantinople districts the writers knew the history very well. The authors were convinced in military weakness of Istanbul. According to their information, the city walls have never been fixed so it was easy to grab it. 
Istanbul and the Ottoman Empire used to be compared to dragon in its negative meaning.
Polish publisism shows the level of knowledge about the Ottoman Empire and we can distinguish between real facts and the author’s imagination. 
Key words: Constantinople, publicism, image.

Вісник Чернігівського національного педагогічного університету імені Т.Г.Шевченка. Історичні науки. – 2015. - № 11. – С. 17-23.
Eastern influences on Ukrainian Cossacks are under analysis in the article. Cossacks borrowed a lot from the Tatars. Eastern influence was not only in Cossacks’ appearance, elements of life, military affairs, but also in diplomacy and the self. The reason for this was the location of the Cossacks in borderland frontier area, which pushed them to establish a wide range of relations with Eastern neighbors.
Keywords: frontier, Cossacks, Tatars, collaboration.

The article is dedicated to the Frontier Thesis and the opportunities of its usage for the history of Ukraine explanation. F.Turner’s ideas about the history of the USA are been compared with ideas about Ukrainian variant of the Frontier – Zaporizhzha. The initiative of American frontier colonization belonged to the state and was financed by the state. On the contrary, Zaporizhzha was colonized spontaneously. The state didn’t participate in the process. Author considers huge assimilation process to be the peculiarity of Ukrainian Frontier, because all immigrants on Cossacks’ lands had to make a conversion to Orthodoxy. The Cossacks always proclaimed their faith to Ukrainian people. American Frontier was integrated to the state gradually and turned into region dominating in the politics. However, Zaporizhzha always stayed beyond political borders.
The main peculiarity of Ukrainian Frontier is distinguished as static. American Frontier was always moving to the West, though the Ukrainian one didn’t have such territory as the lands in front were populated by the Tatars.
Key words: Frontier Thesis, Zaporizhzha, comparison.

The article is devoted to the works of Josef  Wereszczynski’s contemporaries. The author demonstrate that they touched in their works on current topics of social and political life of the Polish- Lithuanian Commonwealth: a possible war with the Ottoman Empire, the administrative reform of Ukrainian lands, etc. like Wereszczynski did.
Tags: publicistics, anti-Turkish literature, the Holy League.

The period of XVI - XVII centuries was the time of opposition between Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. In this confrontation the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was assigned the role of the eastern border. Polish diplomats and intellectuals created the concept of “Bulwark of Christianity” (antemurale christianitatis) in which the importance of Poland in the fight against the Turks was strongly praised.
Contemporaries have devoted thousands of works to the threat from the Ottoman Empire. In the XVI century there appeared a special branch of anti-Turkish literature in many European countries. Usually the Turks were portrayed negatively, but sometimes in European and Polish anti-Turkish works one can find positive attitude to the Turks and their state. To understand why the authors of XVI-XVII centuries considered the Turks worthy of respect, which was quite common, one should find out who wrote about the Ottoman Empire.
Priests and Christian monks saw the Turks as eschatological evil. Instead, geographers, politicians, historians, and military tried to understand the structure of the state, especially the society, law, and public policy. The first aspect of the Turks idealization was their military activities. They seized vast areas and caused significant defeats to Christians. Thus the logical conclusion was that the Turks were better soldiers than Europeans. In Polish literature one can find a comparison of Turkish troops with Roman. Victory of the Turks served Polish authors as the contrast to criticism of its own troops. The authors considered Janissaries an example of military discipline. The social structure of the Ottoman Empire often became the object of the idealized description. Among the positive features of the Ottoman state was the absence of social status which allowed making a career through person’s own ability.
The Turkish society was often called just as the guarantor was the Sultan. The supporters of state centralization idealized his strong government. It was considered the foundation of justice as the Sultan was ignorant about the origin and status of the person guilty. 
Of course, the Turkish world was not the same as described. But the contemporaries wanted to see it as such. This fact indicates problems in European countries.
Key words: political journalism, anti-Turkish literature, the Commonwealth, the Ottoman Empire.

The article is dedicated to propaganda in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the middle of XVI – middle XVII c. Struggle against Turkish-Ottoman was one of the main problems of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in international arena. At this time in Europe the Habsburgs were trying to form the Holy League for the common war against Istanbul. That is why in Poland was organized a big propaganda campaign aimed to persuade the gentry in the appropriateness of joining the League. The political publicism became arena of this propaganda.

Роботу конференції планується проводити за такими основними напрямами:
• Українська державність у ХVІІ – ХVІІІ ст.: суспільно-політичні та станові трансформації,
духовне та культурне життя;
• Персоніфікація історії козацтва ХVІ – ХVІІІ ст.;
• Козацька Україна в історії Європи та Азії;
• Біографічні та генеалогічні студії.

Матеріали конференції будуть видані окремим випуском Всеукраїнського фахового видання "Гілея: науковий вісник" .

V. Pylypenko. The Face of the Enemy. Polish Antiturkish Literature mid XVI – mid XVII ст. Europe in XV – XVII c. lived under a constant threat of war against the Ottoman Empire. At first European monarchies didn’t take into consideration a newly created state. Though after conquering Constantinople in 1453 the Turks turned from the local to a global political player and started to threaten the established political and economic rules of the Old World. As a result there appeared antiturkish literature in almost every European country. Polish Kingdom (after Union of Lublin 1569 – Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) used to have quite long common border with the Ottoman Empire and its vassals so felt this threat especially acutely. Antiturkish literature in Poland was widely spread and was called “turcika”. The authors of antiturkish publicist works tried to answer the questions: how to resist the Turkish invasion, how to prepare to war, who will be the confederate, how to reform the army etc. Appeared in social and political discourse of Polish state in mid XV c., antiturkish works changed into a separate kind of literature before the mid XVI c. To my mind the founder of this literature is Stanisław Orzechowski. The authors of “turcika” tried to answer the actual questions. One of them was the reform of Pospolite ruszenie. Some writers suggested refusing from ruszenie as it was not effective in the struggle with the Tatars and Turks. Therefor they offered to create a permanent mercenary army which should be settled on Ukrainian-Tatar border. One way of opposition against Turkish-Tatar threat was administrative reform of Ukrainian lands. The writers suggested creating new administrative units on southern-eastern borders of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. These should be called regiments, order of chivalry, Niżnia Polska, and Cossack principality. The main task of people living on these administrative units should be border defense. But for the reform of territory the reform of army was suggested. Intellectuals understood that the present army was not effective. To enhance combat performance discipline should be brought, qualified leaders appointed, drill conducted regularly. One of the ways to raise the morale of the Polish nobility was considered in establishment of a school for noble knight youth. It should be located on Ukrainian lands and service in such school should have been obligatory for sons of the nobles. The writers thought it was a good opportunity for young men to get a necessary experience and they will be able to protect their state. Some Polish intellectuals suggested using Cossacks for border defense more active because Cossacks’ existence was thought as negative. To writers’ mind Cossacks might be used both on the land and at sea. It was offered that Cossacks take part in total war against the Turks together with other European countries. Possible war with Istanbul was under discussion. The writers suggested different variants of all European antiturkish coalition and plans of its activities, ways of offensive on the Ottoman Empire. But for problems of Polish and Turkish relationship the order in the Ottoman Empire, its culture and traditions was touched upon in “turcika”. The Turks and the Tatars were usually described in a negative way. Though such attitude was inequitable. The authors deliberately tried to vilify the Turks and the Tatars as they were enemies. In spite of “turcika’s” popularity and a constant threat of war with the Ottoman Empire neither the king, nor the gentry followed intellectuals’ advice. Anti-Turkish literature experienced its peak of popularity in times of Polish-Ottoman War 1620-1621 and waned gradually. And with the introduction of the National Liberation War of the Ukrainian people 1648-1657's this literature generally receded.