- Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom
ahmed shaheed
University of Essex, Law, Faculty Member
- Professor of International Human Rights Law, Essex Law School, University of Essex, Colchester. Director, Essex Summe... moreProfessor of International Human Rights Law, Essex Law School, University of Essex, Colchester. Director, Essex Summer School on Human Rights. Director, Religion & Equality Unit at Essex Human Rights Centre. Current projects: Human Rights Capacity-Building in Uzbekistan; Combating Islamophobia & Securitisation; and Human Rights, Big Data & Technology Project. Advisor on Hate Speech to UN Office on Genocide Prevention. Advisor on freedom of religion or belief to the Organisation for Security & Cooperation in Europe. Former UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief (2016-2022) and UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Iran (2011-2016)edit
Professor Jules Pretty and journalist Martha Dixon, take you on a journey to discover why we need to learn from our past in uncovering the global impact of migration on our people and our land. Our speakers have direct experience of... more
Professor Jules Pretty and journalist Martha Dixon, take you on a journey to discover why we need to learn from our past in uncovering the global impact of migration on our people and our land. Our speakers have direct experience of migration and the impact it has had on their lives. We discuss why this is such an important issue and why we need to learn from the past to look forward. Roma Tearne arrived on a boat from Sri Lanka more than fifty years ago. Her parents were Tamil and Sinhalese, caught in a conflict between the two ethnic groups. Roma is an award winning artist and novelist. Her art reflects departed memories and she works with asylum seekers and immigrants to make an imagined archive of what they've lost. Professor Susan Oliver looks at past migration through literature. This provides valuable insights into trying to understand the current impact of migration and the longer view. But this understanding cannot happen without engagement from the public – the very pe...
For several years now, the right to life has been under heavy assault in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The country has followed a familiar but troubling pattern regarding the use of the death penalty. It has consistently ranked second in... more
For several years now, the right to life has been under heavy assault in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The country has followed a familiar but troubling pattern regarding the use of the death penalty. It has consistently ranked second in the world in the number of executions carried out (behind China), and first in executions per capita. In 2015, alone, human rights organisations tracking the number of executions in Iran documented at least 966 executions, with over 65 percent of these executions related to non-violent drug crimes. In April 2016, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein called on Iranian authorities to institute a moratorium on the use of the death penalty altogether. Commissioner Zeid’s request, like many before him, centered on two particularly egregious aspects of the death penalty in Iran: 1) the execution of juvenile offenders, or individuals under 18 years of age when they committed an offense; and 2) use of the death penalty for crimes not...
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Big data and artificial intelligence (AI) greatly affect the enjoyment of all fundamental rights and freedoms enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). These new technologies offer significant opportunities for the... more
Big data and artificial intelligence (AI) greatly affect the enjoyment of all fundamental rights and freedoms enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). These new technologies offer significant opportunities for the advancement of human rights across many areas of life, including by facilitating more personalised education and assisting people in later life to live a dignified life at home. At the same time, however, the use of big data and AI has the potential to undermine or to violate human rights protections. For example, the use of these technologies can affect a range of sectors and areas of life, such as education, work, social care, health and law enforcement, and can negatively impact groups in positions of vulnerability, such as refugees, asylum-seekers and older persons. The use of big data and AI can also threaten the right to equality, the prohibition of discrimination and the right to privacy. These rights can act as gatekeepers for the enjoyment of other fundamental rights and freedoms, and interferences in this regard may hinder the development of individuals’ identity and agency, potentially undermining the basis of participatory democracy.
Inspired by the UDHR, this report recommends that in order to effectively respond to the potential and challenges of big data and AI, states and businesses should apply a human-rights based approach (HRBA) to existing and future applications of these technologies. An HRBA provides a common language to frame harms, offering clear parameters as to what is and is not permitted under international human rights law, both for state and non-state actors. Specific human rights principles such as accessibility, affordability, avoidance of harm, and intellectual freedom can also contribute to addressing issues of marginalisation, discrimination and the digital divide. At the heart of the development and use of big data and AI should be the right to benefit from scientific progress (Article 27 UDHR). This can help to ensure that the emergence of new technology serves societal goals.
Inspired by the UDHR, this report recommends that in order to effectively respond to the potential and challenges of big data and AI, states and businesses should apply a human-rights based approach (HRBA) to existing and future applications of these technologies. An HRBA provides a common language to frame harms, offering clear parameters as to what is and is not permitted under international human rights law, both for state and non-state actors. Specific human rights principles such as accessibility, affordability, avoidance of harm, and intellectual freedom can also contribute to addressing issues of marginalisation, discrimination and the digital divide. At the heart of the development and use of big data and AI should be the right to benefit from scientific progress (Article 27 UDHR). This can help to ensure that the emergence of new technology serves societal goals.
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As the papers in this POMEPs collection document, the emancipatory promise of technology is overshadowed by a rising tide of States who co-opt technological advances to enable online and offline repressive measures, a phenomenon otherwise... more
As the papers in this POMEPs collection document, the emancipatory promise of technology is overshadowed by a rising tide of States who co-opt technological advances to enable online and offline repressive measures, a phenomenon otherwise referred to as the rise of ‘digital authoritarianism’. This trend has been thrown into high relief in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region by geopolitical shifts that have given greater influence to states that are importing and exporting repressive technologies, applications, and governance models. Digital authoritarianism does not involve just the co-option of technology, but also the re-shaping and subversion of international norms to reduce the transactional costs of authoritarian control and suppress the legitimacy of mobilization for greater online and offline freedoms. This paper examines the laws and practices of states, including through Covid-linked state responses, in the MENA region that enable digital authoritarianism and their disjuncture with the human rights obligations of these states. It then shows that despite this regression, the ‘cat-and-mouse’ contest between digital authoritarianism and digital activism is a fluid one, highlighting opportunities to push back against this authoritarianism.
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For several years now the right to life has been under heavy assault in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The country has followed a familiar but troubling pattern regarding the use of the death penalty. It has consistently ranked second in... more
For several years now the right to life has been under heavy assault
in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The country has followed a familiar
but troubling pattern regarding the use of the death penalty. It has
consistently ranked second in the world in the number of executions
carried out (behind China), and first in executions per capita. More
recently, the upward trend in executions that began in 2010-11 has
reached alarming levels not seen in more than two decades.3 In 2015,
alone, human rights organisations tracking the number of executions
in Iran documented at least 966 executions, with over 65 percent of
these executions related to non-violent drug crimes. In that same
year, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Iran accounted for around 90 percent
of all executions in the world (excluding China), helping reverse a
global trend that had seen a constant reduction of death penalty cases
worldwide during the past 25 years.
in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The country has followed a familiar
but troubling pattern regarding the use of the death penalty. It has
consistently ranked second in the world in the number of executions
carried out (behind China), and first in executions per capita. More
recently, the upward trend in executions that began in 2010-11 has
reached alarming levels not seen in more than two decades.3 In 2015,
alone, human rights organisations tracking the number of executions
in Iran documented at least 966 executions, with over 65 percent of
these executions related to non-violent drug crimes. In that same
year, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Iran accounted for around 90 percent
of all executions in the world (excluding China), helping reverse a
global trend that had seen a constant reduction of death penalty cases
worldwide during the past 25 years.
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The report addresses gender-based violence and discrimination in the name of religion or belief. In a number of States worldwide, religious precepts underlie laws and State-sanctioned practices that constitute violations of the right to... more
The report addresses gender-based violence and discrimination in the name of religion or belief. In a number of States worldwide, religious precepts underlie laws and State-sanctioned practices that constitute violations of the right to non-discrimination of women, girls and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT+) persons. In other States, claims of religious freedom are being used to roll back and seek exemptions to laws that protect against gender-based violence and discrimination. This study provides emblematic cases of both these phenomena and their impact on gender equality and freedom of religion or belief worldwide. It explores freedom of religion or belief and non-discrimination as two and mutually reinforcing rights and clarifies the existing international legal framework that governs their intersection. It concludes by emphasizing the responsibility of States to create enabling environments to advance the non-discrimination and freedom of religion of belief rights of women, girls and LGBT+ persons.
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As the initial report of a six-year mandate to cover freedom of religion or belief for the UN, this report presents an overview of the perspective and scope of work for the mandate for the next 6 years, identifying persistent challenges... more
As the initial report of a six-year mandate to cover freedom of religion or belief for the UN, this report presents an overview of the perspective and scope of work for the mandate for the next 6 years, identifying persistent challenges and emerging trends and presenting an agenda for operationalizing the right to freedom of religion or belief within and across the United Nations system and beyond. The report includes an outline of the methods of work and programmatic priorities that will constitute the guiding framework for the mandate for the six-year period consistent with the growing emphasis placed by the Human Rights Council on the need to address persistent implementation gaps in compliance with human rights standards.
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This report identifies violence, discrimination and expressions of hostility motivated by antisemitism as a serious obstacle to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of religion or belief. It notes with serious concern that the frequency... more
This report identifies violence, discrimination and expressions of hostility motivated by antisemitism as a serious obstacle to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of religion or belief. It notes with serious concern that the frequency of antisemitic incidents appears to be increasing in magnitude in several countries where monitors attempt to document such incidents, including online, and that the prevalence of antisemitic attitudes and the risk of violence against Jewish individuals and sites appears to be significant elsewhere, including in countries with few or no Jewish inhabitants. The study notes that those incidents have created a climate of fear among a substantial number of Jews, impairing their right to manifest their religion, and that discriminatory acts by individuals and laws and policies by Governments have also had a negative impact. The report stresses that antisemitism, if left unchecked by Governments, poses risks not only to Jews, but also to members of other minority communities. Antisemitism is toxic to democracy and mutual respect of citizens and threatens all societies in which it goes unchallenged.
The report calls on States to adopt a human-rights based approach in combating antisemitism, as should be done in combating all forms of religious intolerance. It encourages States to identify, document and prohibit, in law and in practice, the commission of antisemitic hate crimes; to enhance government outreach to Jewish communities; to protect individuals at risk of violence; and to take actions in the areas of education and awareness-raising aimed at curbing the spread of antisemitic views. The report also makes recommendations to the media, civil society and the United Nations on efforts that all stakeholders can make to combat antisemitism and promote religious freedom and pluralism.
The report calls on States to adopt a human-rights based approach in combating antisemitism, as should be done in combating all forms of religious intolerance. It encourages States to identify, document and prohibit, in law and in practice, the commission of antisemitic hate crimes; to enhance government outreach to Jewish communities; to protect individuals at risk of violence; and to take actions in the areas of education and awareness-raising aimed at curbing the spread of antisemitic views. The report also makes recommendations to the media, civil society and the United Nations on efforts that all stakeholders can make to combat antisemitism and promote religious freedom and pluralism.
Research Interests: Hate Speech, Hate Crimes, Antisemitism/Racisms, Holocaust education, Religion and Violence, and 9 moreAntisemitism, Extreme and Far Right, Online Hate Groups, History of Antisemitism, Online Racial and Hate Discrimination, Social Media and Freedom of Speech and Expression, Islamist extremism, Racial and Gendered Violence, and Hate speech online
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its interdependent Sustainable Development Goals include an explicit commitment to leaving no one behind.The 2030 Agenda clearly provides that human rights, development, peace and security... more
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its interdependent Sustainable Development Goals include an explicit commitment to leaving no one behind.The 2030 Agenda clearly provides that human rights, development, peace and security are mutually reinforcing and contains a commitment “to respect, protect and promote human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, disability or other status”.
The people most likely to be left behind by development are often those who endure discrimination and exclusion on the grounds of identity – often multiple identities – including religious or belief identity. Such discrimination can be particularly acute in situations where persons identify with a religion or belief group that is numerically inferior to the rest of the population and/or in a non-dominant position in a given society. In many parts of the world, such populations experience significant discrimination and social exclusion – often entrenched over generations – on the basis of, and in the name of, religion or belief. Such discrimination inhibits the fundamental freedoms of members of these religious or belief communities, perpetuates significant inequalities in numerous sectors and limits their ability to participate effectively in cultural, religious, social and public life.
This report focuses on persons who, on account of their religion or belief, are at risk of “being left behind”, but have received less attention from policymakers in the field of sustainable development. Equally, the analysis seeks to encourage all stakeholders – States, civil society (including faith-based actors) and United Nations entities – to include action on sustainable development in their efforts to promote freedom of religion or belief, in particular in the context of religious or belief minorities who may experience unequal access to essential services such as health care, quality education and housing, inter alia.
The people most likely to be left behind by development are often those who endure discrimination and exclusion on the grounds of identity – often multiple identities – including religious or belief identity. Such discrimination can be particularly acute in situations where persons identify with a religion or belief group that is numerically inferior to the rest of the population and/or in a non-dominant position in a given society. In many parts of the world, such populations experience significant discrimination and social exclusion – often entrenched over generations – on the basis of, and in the name of, religion or belief. Such discrimination inhibits the fundamental freedoms of members of these religious or belief communities, perpetuates significant inequalities in numerous sectors and limits their ability to participate effectively in cultural, religious, social and public life.
This report focuses on persons who, on account of their religion or belief, are at risk of “being left behind”, but have received less attention from policymakers in the field of sustainable development. Equally, the analysis seeks to encourage all stakeholders – States, civil society (including faith-based actors) and United Nations entities – to include action on sustainable development in their efforts to promote freedom of religion or belief, in particular in the context of religious or belief minorities who may experience unequal access to essential services such as health care, quality education and housing, inter alia.
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This study examines how Islamophobia/anti-Muslim hatred infringes upon freedom of religion or belief. Perpetuating discrimination, hostility and violence towards Muslim individuals and communities, the phenomenon undercuts the ability of... more
This study examines how Islamophobia/anti-Muslim hatred infringes upon freedom of religion or belief. Perpetuating discrimination, hostility and violence towards Muslim individuals and communities, the phenomenon undercuts the ability of affected Muslims to be Muslim and violates their freedom of religion or belief and myriad other human rights. Despite its pervasive impacts, Islamophobia/anti-Muslim hatred remains poorly understood and discussions on how to address its effects are often fraught with tension. This report unpacks the concept of Islamophobia/anti-Muslim hatred, including the processes of essentialization and racialization that propel this form of bias; documents the experiences of affected communities and the impacts that Islamophobia/anti-Muslim hatred have on human rights; affirms the relevant international human rights framework; and proposes recommendations to address and mitigate the impacts of Islamophobia/anti-Muslim hatred in a manner consistent with international law.
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This report maps diverse experiences of religious or belief minorities during situations of conflict or insecurity. It explores the specific needs and vulnerabilities experienced by minorities in conflict and examines why and how these... more
This report maps diverse experiences of religious or belief minorities during situations of conflict or insecurity. It explores the specific needs and vulnerabilities experienced by minorities in conflict and examines why and how these vulnerabilities arise through contextual analysis. Evidence gathered for the report questions narratives that overestimate the relationship between religion and conflict and fail to recognize the multiplicity of factors (political, social and economic) that contribute towards violence and insecurity, which overshadow and undermine prospects for peace-building. It further challenges prevailing discursive binaries that depict religion as either a source of violence or peace-building. The report proposes recommendations to protect and promote religious or belief minorities' rights during crises and to lay the groundwork for inclusive peace-building efforts.
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This report highlights the interrelationship between freedom of religion or belief and violent extremism. It stresses the duty of States to ensure that any restriction imposed on the right to freedom of religion or belief must strictly... more
This report highlights the interrelationship between freedom of religion or belief and violent extremism. It stresses the duty of States to ensure that any restriction imposed on the right to freedom of religion or belief must strictly comply with the limitations regime stipulated by international human rights law. It argues that ensuring the rights of all persons reduces conflict involving religion or belief, thereby better facilitating human security.
While cautioning against securitizing religion or belief, the report urges States to operationalize various tools developed by the United Nations system in the context of freedom of religion or belief and the prevention of mass atrocities, and which are grounded in the human rights framework, to build societal resilience against violent extremism. It encourages States to develop national action plans with the participation of national human rights institutions, civil society organizations and development partners to facilitate the implementation of specific roles contained in these tools for national and international actors, including the mass media, judicial authorities, oversight bodies, civil society, religious leaders and faith-based actors. It further calls on the relevant United Nations mechanisms to encourage the formulation of these plans and increase transparency on their implementation and, in particular, to support the convening of the seventh meeting of the Istanbul Process for Combating Intolerance, Discrimination and Incitement to Hatred and/or Violence on the Basis of Religion or Belief.
While cautioning against securitizing religion or belief, the report urges States to operationalize various tools developed by the United Nations system in the context of freedom of religion or belief and the prevention of mass atrocities, and which are grounded in the human rights framework, to build societal resilience against violent extremism. It encourages States to develop national action plans with the participation of national human rights institutions, civil society organizations and development partners to facilitate the implementation of specific roles contained in these tools for national and international actors, including the mass media, judicial authorities, oversight bodies, civil society, religious leaders and faith-based actors. It further calls on the relevant United Nations mechanisms to encourage the formulation of these plans and increase transparency on their implementation and, in particular, to support the convening of the seventh meeting of the Istanbul Process for Combating Intolerance, Discrimination and Incitement to Hatred and/or Violence on the Basis of Religion or Belief.
Research Interests: Sociology of Religion, Human Rights, Accountability, Securitization, Marginalized Identities, and 7 moreIslamophobia, Religious Extremism, Police Accountability, National Security, Religious Freedom and the Accomodation of Religious Diversity, Ethnicity and National Identity, and Countering Violent Extremism
This report assesses the situation of freedom of religion or belief in the Netherlands. It is based on a field mission to the Netherlands undertaken in April 2019.
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Based on desktop research, analyses of responses to questionnaires, structured submissions, online consultations and field research, the report initiates a critical conversation within the UN system and beyond on obstacles and... more
Based on desktop research, analyses of responses to questionnaires, structured submissions, online consultations and field research, the report initiates a critical conversation within the UN system and beyond on obstacles and opportunities facing indigenous peoples' freedom of religion or belief—a largely overlooked subject. Understanding indigenous peoples and their diverse religions or beliefs is impossible without acknowledging historical and ongoing experiences of discrimination, violence, and
hostility, even threatening their spiritual, cultural, and physical survival. The report explores "indigenous spirituality" as a typically nature-based "way of life," documents experiences of affected rights-holders—from forced displacement to environmental destruction—and proposes recommendations to protect and promote freedom of religion or belief of indigenous peoples, consistent with international law.
hostility, even threatening their spiritual, cultural, and physical survival. The report explores "indigenous spirituality" as a typically nature-based "way of life," documents experiences of affected rights-holders—from forced displacement to environmental destruction—and proposes recommendations to protect and promote freedom of religion or belief of indigenous peoples, consistent with international law.
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This report to the UN Human Rights Council analyses the relationships between State and religion and their impact on freedom of religion or belief. It stresses the obligation of States to act as impartial guarantor of freedom of religion... more
This report to the UN Human Rights Council analyses the relationships between State and religion and their impact on freedom of religion or belief. It stresses the obligation of States to act as impartial guarantor of freedom of religion or belief to all regardless of the relationships between State and religion or belief.
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This report to the UN Human Rights Council explores freedom of religion or belief and freedom of expression as two closely interrelated and mutually reinforcing rights. It provides a brief overview of the rules that govern limitations on... more
This report to the UN Human Rights Council explores freedom of religion or belief and freedom of expression as two closely interrelated and mutually reinforcing rights. It provides a brief overview of the rules that govern limitations on those freedoms under the international legal framework on human rights, explores some primary examples of restrictions imposed on the freedom of expression for reasons relating to religion or belief and examines the justifications frequently offered for imposing them. In this light, it discusses a number of emblematic cases. The study concludes that initiatives and action plans developed in the past decade to operationalize States' obligations under article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights should continue to guide Governments and civil society actors in their efforts.
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This report, presented to the 72nd Session of the United Nations General Assembly notes the increase in religious intolerance worldwide and discusses the gap between international commitments to combat intolerant acts and national... more
This report, presented to the 72nd Session of the United Nations General Assembly notes the increase in religious intolerance worldwide and discusses the gap between international commitments to combat intolerant acts and national practices. It encourages States to make greater use of existing United Nations mechanisms to combat religious intolerance and concludes with recommendations that States, faith leaders, civil society and the media should consider in promoting and protecting freedom of religion or belief.
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This study examines the theoretical scope and potential violations of the first right in article 18 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: freedom of thought. Drawing on international jurisprudence, scholarship... more
This study examines the theoretical scope and potential violations of the first right in article 18 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: freedom of thought. Drawing on international jurisprudence, scholarship and the perspectives of diverse stakeholders, it first examines four proposed attributes of this right: (a) freedom not to disclose one’s thoughts; (b) freedom from punishment for one’s thoughts; (c) freedom from impermissible alteration of one’s thoughts; and (d) an enabling environment for freedom of thought.
Second, the report highlights potential violations of the right across seven diverse fields: torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; surveillance; coercive proselytism, anti-conversion and anti-blasphemy efforts; intellectual freedom and education; existing and emerging technologies; mental health; and conversion practices. Finally, the study makes key recommendations to multilateral, State and various non-State actors on how to respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of thought. It encourages the United Nations human rights system to further clarify the freedom’s scope and content, including through a general comment.
Second, the report highlights potential violations of the right across seven diverse fields: torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; surveillance; coercive proselytism, anti-conversion and anti-blasphemy efforts; intellectual freedom and education; existing and emerging technologies; mental health; and conversion practices. Finally, the study makes key recommendations to multilateral, State and various non-State actors on how to respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of thought. It encourages the United Nations human rights system to further clarify the freedom’s scope and content, including through a general comment.
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There is a growing understanding that conscientious objectors to military service are entitled to all the protections offered by freedom of religion or belief and by the full human rights framework. In this chapter, Ahmed Shaheed and... more
There is a growing understanding that conscientious objectors to military service are entitled to all the protections offered by freedom of religion or belief and by the full human rights framework. In this chapter, Ahmed Shaheed and Laura Rodwell reflect on the notions of conscience and of freedom of conscience, also outlining various types of claims made under conscientious objection to military service. Furthermore, they recount the current positions on this right that have been adopted by the UN Human Rights Committee and the European Court of Human Rights. Lastly, they identify the key features of the right to freedom of religion or belief and explore their implications for conscientious objection to military service.
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Freedom of thought, conscience, and religion or belief (FoRB) is one of the cornerstones of pluralism, and growing evidence indicates that respect for religious pluralism is indispensable to peace and security. The protection for the... more
Freedom of thought, conscience, and religion or belief (FoRB) is one of the cornerstones of pluralism, and growing evidence indicates that respect for religious pluralism is indispensable to peace and security. The protection for the right to FoRB enables people of all faiths and none to live together, learn from each other, and be treated equally. In other words, the right to FoRB is fundamental to peaceful and inclusive societies. However, religious persecution and discrimination worldwide continue to speak to the widespread challenges facing our ability to adequately promote and protect this right. This article examines some of the reasons for these deficits, including widespread misconceptions about the normative content of FoRB, and the challenges of securitisation and politicisation of religion. It also identifies some of the emerging opportunities to address them, including increasing international investments in promoting FoRB and relevant normative and practical tools to gu...