Small-Baseline Approach for Monitoring the Freezing and Thawing Deformation of Permafrost on the Beiluhe Basin, Tibetan Plateau Using TerraSAR-X and Sentinel-1 Data
<p>(<b>a</b>) Geographic location of the study area. (<b>b</b>) Coverage of SAR images and the study area. The red box indicates the coverage of Sentinel-1 data. The blue box indicates the coverage of TerraSAR-X data, and the white box represents the overlay area of the study area. (<b>c</b>) Topographic map, which is extracted from a Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Digital Elevation Model (SRTM DEM). (<b>d</b>) TerraSAR-X amplitude image in the blue box (<a href="#sensors-20-04464-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>c).</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Flowchart of the NSBAS method of deformation analysis with the main processing steps.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Spatial and temporal baselines of the interferograms. (<b>a</b>) Sentinel-1 data. (<b>b</b>) TerraSAR-X data.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>2-m air temperature data in this study area from 7/1/2017 to 11/29/2019.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Sentinel-1 InSAR results based on the seasonal and long-term deformation models over 08/07/2018–10/25/2019. (<b>a</b>) Amplitude of seasonal deformation. (<b>b</b>) Linear deformation rate. (<b>c</b>) DEM error. (<b>d</b>) Residual deformation.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Sentinel-1 and TerraSAR-X InSAR results in the Beiluhe basin. (<b>a</b>) Amplitude of seasonal deformation of Sentinel-1 during the period 08/07/2018–10/25/2019. (<b>b</b>) Amplitude of seasonal deformation of TerraSAR-X during the period 12/15/2018–10/08/2019. (<b>c</b>) Linear deformation rate of Sentinel-1 during the period 08/07/2018–10/25/2019. (<b>d</b>) Linear deformation rate of TerraSAR-X during the period 12/15/2018–10/08/2019.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Relation between the maximum (red), minimum (green), and mean (black) value and the elevation (blue) of the residual deformation. (<b>a</b>) Histogram of the DEM error. (<b>b</b>) Histogram of the residual deformation. (<b>c</b>) N1-N2 profile. (<b>d</b>) M1-M2 profile.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Relation between the maximum (red), the minimum (green), mean (black) value and elevation (blue) of the amplitude of the seasonal deformation and linear deformation rate. (<b>a</b>) Amplitude of the seasonal deformation profile along N1 to N2. (<b>b</b>) Linear deformation rate profile along N1 to N2. (<b>c</b>) Amplitude of the seasonal deformation profile along M1 to M2. (<b>d</b>) Linear deformation rate profile along M1 to M2.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Correlations between the height, the slope and amplitude of the seasonal deformation. (<b>a</b>) Height and amplitude of the seasonal deformation profile along N1 to N2. (<b>b</b>) Height and amplitude of the seasonal deformation profile along M1 to M2. (<b>c</b>) Slope and amplitude of the seasonal deformation profile along N1 to N2. (<b>d</b>) Slope and amplitude of the seasonal deformation profile along M1 to M2.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Field photos of typical ground targets and the TerraSAR-X seasonal deformation map (<b>a</b>) Alpine Desert (D1). (<b>b</b>) QTH Region (H1). (<b>c</b>) Barren (B1). (<b>d</b>) Alpine Desert (D1). (<b>e</b>) QTR region (R1) (<b>f</b>) Floodplain (F1). (<b>g</b>) TerraSAR-X amplitude map.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>(<b>a</b>) Amplitude of the seasonal deformation along the P1-P2 profile. (<b>b</b>) Linear deformation rate along the P1-P2 profile. (<b>c</b>) Amplitude of the seasonal deformation along the Q1-Q2 profile. (<b>d</b>) Linear deformation rate along the Q1-Q2 profile.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>(<b>a</b>) Correlation of the amplitude of the seasonal deformation of TerraSAR-X and Sentinel-1 along the P1-P2 profile. (<b>b</b>) Correlation of the amplitude of the seasonal deformation of TerraSAR-X and Sentinel-1 along the Q1-Q2 profile. (<b>c</b>) Correlation of the linear deformation rate of TerraSAR-X and Sentinel-1 along the P1-P2 profile. (<b>d</b>) Correlation of the linear deformation rate of TerraSAR-X and Sentinel-1 along the Q1-Q2 profile.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Time series deformation of the study area. The acquisition from 8 August 2019 is set as the reference image.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>Sentinel-1 displacement time series at six locations with six typical ground target regions on the Beiluhe basin. (<b>a</b>) Alpine meadow. (<b>b</b>) Alpine desert. (<b>c</b>) Barren. (<b>d</b>) Floodplain. (<b>e</b>) QTH Region. (<b>f</b>) QTR Region.</p> "> Figure 15
<p>Daily air temperature (2 m surface) and NSBAS time series displacement of the alpine meadow (point 1) alpine desert (point 2), barren (point 3), and floodplain (point 4) during the freezing and thawing periods. (<b>a</b>) Daily air temperature from 8/1/2018 to 11/1/2019. (<b>b</b>) Daily air temperature from 12/1/2018 to 11/1/2019. (<b>c</b>) Sentinel-1 NSBAS time series displacement. (<b>d</b>) TerraSAR-X NSBAS time series displacement.</p> "> Figure 16
<p>Interpreted GPR results of the ALT profile in Beiluhe basin. (<b>a</b>) Alpine meadow. (<b>b</b>) Alpine desert. (<b>c</b>) Barren. (<b>d</b>) Floodplain. (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) The site locations of GPR on Google earth images. (<b>i</b>–<b>l</b>) Amplitude of the seasonal deformation map of the Sentinel-1 data.</p> "> Figure 17
<p>The relationship between amplitude of seasonal deformation and ALT. (<b>a</b>) Alpine meadow. (<b>b</b>) Alpine desert. (<b>c</b>) Barren. (<b>d</b>) Flood plain.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Study Area and Datasets
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Datasets
3. Methodology
3.1. Sentinel-1 and TerraSAR-X InSAR Processing
3.2. Seasonal and Long-Term Deformation Model
3.3. NSBAS Method Based on the Seasonal and Long-Term Deformation Model
4. Results and Analysis
4.1. InSAR Results
4.1.1. Sentinel-1 Results From Wudaoliang to Tuotuohe
4.1.2. Sentinel-1 and TerraSAR-X InSAR Results on the Beiluhe Basin
4.2. Spatiotemporal Analysis of Deformation Results
4.3. Time-Series Deformation Analysis
4.4. Freeze–Thaw Cycles of Permafrost in the Beiluhe Basin
5. Discussion
5.1. Comparison with Other Surface Subsidence Studies on the QTP
5.2. Analysis of InSAR Results and ALT Based on GPR Data
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sensor | Temporal Coverage | Image Number | Orbit | Incidence Angle | Polarization | Range Pixel Spacing(m) | Azimuth Pixel Spacing(m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sentinel-1 | 08/07/2018–10/25/2019 | 35 | Descending | 34.46 | VV | 2.33 | 13.98 |
TerraSAR-X | 12/15/2018–10/08/2019 | 9 | Ascending | 25.46 | HH | 0.454 | 0.167 |
Dataset | Typical Ground Targets | P1-P2 Profiles | Typical Ground Targets | Q1-Q2 Profiles | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amplitude of Seasonal Deformation (mm) | Linear Deformation Rate (mm/yr) | Amplitude of Seasonal Deformation (mm) | Linear Deformation Rate (mm/yr) | |||
Sentinel-1 | Alpine meadow | −48.53~−7.37 | −23.73~1.45 | alpine desert | −23.80~0.79 | −13.70~0 |
Alpine desert | −15.56~3.83 | −14.93~0.56 | barren | −20.33~−0.81 | −12.13~0.46 | |
barren | −25.93~−2.41 | −22.14~−7.69 | floodplain | −38.17~−4.02 | −19.12~−4.57 | |
TerraSAR-X | Alpine meadow | −53.49~−5.54 | −21.29~2.38 | alpine desert | −20.87~−6.12 | −15.76~−0.11 |
Alpine desert | −19.63~−0.75 | −18.65~−0.43 | barren | −24.79~−0.80 | −14.80~1.29 | |
barren | −45.84~−1.87 | −21.43~−4.10 | floodplain | −39.98~−6.05 | −19.70~−1.04 |
Dataset | Typical Ground Points | Date of the Maximum Uplift (Freezing Period) | Date of the Maximum Subsidence (Thawing Period) | Time Lags between the Maximum Uplift and the Minimum Air Temperature (01/20/2019) | Time Lags between the Maximum Subsidence and the Maximum Air Temperature (07/28/2019) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sentinel-1 | Point 1 | 04/04/2019 | 08/26/2019 | 74 days | 53 days |
Point 2 | 04/16/2019 | 09/19/2019 | 86 days | 65 days | |
Point 3 | 03/23/2019 | 08/26/2019 | 74 days | 29 days | |
Point 4 | 03/11/2019 | 08/26/2019 | 62 days | 29 days | |
TerraSAR-X | Point 1 | 04/04/2019 | 09/27/2019 | 74 days | 61 days |
Point 2 | 04/26/2019 | 09/27/2019 | 96 days | 61 days | |
Point 3 | 03/02/2019 | 09/27/2019 | 41 days | 61 days | |
Point 4 | 03/02/2019 | 09/27/2019 | 41 days | 61 days |
Study Area | InSAR Method | SAR Dataset | Observation Period | Amplitude of the Seasonal Displacement (mm) | Authors |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Southern QTP | SBAS | Envisat ASAR | 2007–2011 | 0.5–28 | Li et al (2015) |
Beiluhe | PSInSAR | TerraSAR-X | 2014–2015 | 0–90 | Wang et al (2016) |
Northwestern QTP | NSBAS | Envisat ASAR | 2003–2011 | 2.5–12 | Daout et al (2017) |
Same as this study | SBAS | ALOS-1 PALSAR | 2007–2009 | 0–20 | Jia et al (2017) |
Northern QTP | PSInSAR | ALOS-1 PALSAR | 2006–2011 | −60–60 | Chen et al (2018) |
Same as this study | MT-InSAR | Sentinel-1 | 2017.11–2018.12 | 0–30 | Zhang et al (2019) |
South of Qinghai province | NSBAS | Sentinel-1 and TerraSAR-X | 2018.8–2019.10 | −62.50–11.50 | This study |
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Wang, J.; Wang, C.; Zhang, H.; Tang, Y.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, Z. Small-Baseline Approach for Monitoring the Freezing and Thawing Deformation of Permafrost on the Beiluhe Basin, Tibetan Plateau Using TerraSAR-X and Sentinel-1 Data. Sensors 2020, 20, 4464. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20164464
Wang J, Wang C, Zhang H, Tang Y, Zhang X, Zhang Z. Small-Baseline Approach for Monitoring the Freezing and Thawing Deformation of Permafrost on the Beiluhe Basin, Tibetan Plateau Using TerraSAR-X and Sentinel-1 Data. Sensors. 2020; 20(16):4464. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20164464
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Jing, Chao Wang, Hong Zhang, Yixian Tang, Xuefei Zhang, and Zhengjia Zhang. 2020. "Small-Baseline Approach for Monitoring the Freezing and Thawing Deformation of Permafrost on the Beiluhe Basin, Tibetan Plateau Using TerraSAR-X and Sentinel-1 Data" Sensors 20, no. 16: 4464. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20164464