The Effects of a Ketogenic Diet on Exercise Metabolism and Physical Performance in Off-Road Cyclists
<p>The concentration of free fatty acids (FFA) during the exercise protocol, after a mixed and ketogenic diet. * Statistical significance with <span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.05.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>The concentration of LA during the exercise protocol, after a mixed and ketogenic diet. * Statistical significance with <span class="html-italic">p</span> < 0.05.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Objective of the Research and Main Hypothesis
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Subjects
2.2. Experimental Design
Variables | X | SD |
---|---|---|
Body mass (kg) | 80.34 | 7.36 |
Body height(cm) | 179.78 | 8.06 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.93 | 3.01 |
Fat mass (kg) | 11.71 | 5.57 |
WBC (103/μL) | 6.15 | 1.77 |
RBC (106/μL) | 5.31 | 0.29 |
Hematocrit (%) | 45.17 | 3.43 |
Hemoglobin (g/dL) | 15.23 | 0.93 |
2.3. Diet Composition
Diet | Mix | Ket |
---|---|---|
Carbohydrate (CHO) | 50% | 15% |
Fat | 30% | 70% |
Protein (Pro) | 20% | 15% |
Saturated fatty acids (SFA) | 30 g | 68 g |
Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) | 33 g | 130 g |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) | 28 g | 35 g |
Omega-3 | 3.2 g | 7.1 g |
Omega-6 | 10.7 g | 25.4 g |
Biochemical Analysis
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
Variables | Mix | Ket | η2 | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | SD | X | SD | |||
Body mass (kg) | 80.14 | 7.26 | 78.26 | 7.86 | 0.552 | 0.011 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.87 | 3.09 | 23.89 | 3.10 | 0.471 | 0.012 |
FAT (%) | 14.88 | 3.78 | 11.02 | 3.66 | 0.747 | 0.001 |
Variables | Rest | 45 min | 90 min | Max Effort | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mix | Ket | p | Mix | Ket | p | Mix | Ket | P | Mix | Ket | p | |
Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 117.21 ± 10.11 | 90.11 ± 8.75 | 0.002 * | 108.24 ± 8.23 | 110.23 ± 8.34 | 0.041 | 125.11 ± 9.33 | 129.96 ± 9.41 | 0.058 | 129.86 ± 9.44. | 112.34 ± 8.51 | 0.001 * |
Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 188.34 ± 16.22 | 215.34 ± 19.54 | 0.001 * | 196.31 ± 16.32 | 223.61 ± 20.12 | 0.001 * | 190.78 ± 17.34 | 230.93 ± 20.15 | 0.001 * | 191.67 ± 17.57 | 226.11 ± 20.45 | 0.001 * |
High density lipoproteins (mg/dL) | 96.51 ± 7.12 | 117.20 ± 9.14 | 0.002 * | 99.12 ± 7.09 | 115.28 ± 9.10 | 0.002 * | 92.45 ± 7.031 | 118.34 ± 9.45 | 0.001 * | 91.89 ± 7.01 | 119.97 ± 9.51 | 0.001 * |
Low density lipoproteins (mg/dL) | 69.12 ± 4.21 | 74.58 ± 5.12 | 0.461 | 73.31 ± 5.11 | 80.78 ± 6.45 | 0.049 | 72.28 ± 5.09 | 86.21 ± 6.75 | 0.068 | 72.22 ± 5.02 | 83.43 ± 6.56 | 0.593 |
Variable | Rest | 10 min | 45 min | 90 min | Max Effort | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mix | Ket | Mix | Ket | Mix | Ket | Mix | Ket | Mix | Ket | |
HR | 72 ± 5 | 75 ± 6 | 150 ± 3 | 150 ± 3 | 158 ± 4 | 161 ± 5 | 167 ± 5 | 169 ± 5 | 187 ± 6 | 185 ± 6 |
VO2 | 7.20 ± 1.22 | 9.40 ± 1.41 | 35.37 ± 3.45 | 41.25 ± 4.22 | 37.50 ± 3.64 | 44.25 ± 4.56 | 40.87 ± 4.11 | 44.00 ± 4.41 | 51.00 ± 4.87 | 50.00 ± 4.85 |
RER | 0.88 ± 0.04 | 0.76 ± 0.01 | 0.86 ± 0.04 | 0.78 ± 0.02 | 0.85 ± 0.04 | 0.79 ± 0.02 | 0.84 ± 0.03 | 0.79 ± 0.02 | 0.97 ± 0.05 | 0.94 ± 0.05 |
Variables | Rest | 45 min | 90 min | Max Effort | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mix | Ket | Mix | Ket | Mix | Ket | Mix | Ket | |
Ins (U/L) | 19.21 ± 0.81 | 9.87 ± 0.45 | 6.02 ± 0.31 | 4.25 ± 0.22 | 5.45 ± 0.25 | 4.97 ± 0.29 | 9.89 ± 0.45 | 5.63 ± 0.29 |
Glu (mg/dL) | 91.26 ± 4.11 | 91.32 ± 4.13 | 106.11 ± 4.98 | 98.61 ± 4.22 | 89.78 ± 4.01 | 90.04 ± 4.07 | 121.67 ± 5.14 | 119.41 ± 5.08 |
CK (U/L) | 126.32 ± 10.22 | 119.45 ± 9.74 | 158.12 ± 11.21 | 129.11 ± 10.31 | 160.76 ± 13.24 | 139.34 ± 10.58 | 178.12 ± 15.45 | 140.07 ± 12.51 |
LDH (U/L) | 321.26 ± 30.14 | 262.23 ± 24.24 | 349.56 ± 32.17 | 267.56 ± 24.52 | 359.65 ± 33.23 | 265.45 ± 24.45 | 439.76 ± 39.56 | 311.21 ± 27.61 |
T (ng/L) | 6.12 ± 0.4 | 5.86 ± 0.3 | 8.78 ± 0.6 | 7.21 ± 0.5 | 9.38 ± 0.7 | 8.08 ± 0.6 | 7.91 ± 0.5 | 8.14 ± 0.6 |
Cor (nmol/L) | 649 ± 62 | 553 ± 49 | 389 ± 29 | 435 ± 33 | 495 ± 38 | 579 ± 51 | 650 ± 62 | 676 ± 65 |
Variables | Mix | Ket | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | SD | X | SD | ||
Max work load (W) | 362 | 16.09 | 350 | 14.60 | 0.037 |
VO2max (mL/kg/min) | 56.02 | 3.50 | 59.40 | 3.10 | 0.001 |
VO2LT (mL/kg/min) | 43.50 | 1.80 | 47.80 | 2.10 | 0.012 |
LT work load (W) | 257 | 10.60 | 246 | 9.50 | 0.015 |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Hawley, J.; Burke, L. Carbohydrate availability and training adaptation: Effects on cell metabolism. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 2010, 38, 152–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hawley, J.; Burke, L. Nutritional strategies to enhance fat oxidation during aerobic exercise. In W: Clinical Sports Nutrition, 3rd ed.; Burke, L., Deakin, V., Eds.; McGraw-Hill: Sydney, Australia, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Volek, J.; Phinney, S.; Forsythe, C.; Quan, E.; Wood, R.; Puglisi, M.; Kraemer, W.; Bibus, D.; Fernandez, M.; Feinman, R. Carbohydrate restriction has a more favorable impact on the metabolic syndrome than a low fat diet. Lipids 2009, 44, 297–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cox, C.; Brown, R.; Mann, J. The effects of high carbohydrate versus high fat dietary advice on plasma lipids, lipoproteins, apolipoproteins, and performance in endurance trained cyclists. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 1996, 6, 227–233. [Google Scholar]
- Costill, D. Carbohydrates for exercise: Dietary demands for optimal performance. Int. J. Sports Med. 1988, 9, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Noakes, T. Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 2000, 10, 123–145. [Google Scholar]
- Burke, L.; Hawley, J. Effects of short-term fat adaptation on metabolism and performance of prolonged exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2002, 34, 1492–1498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coyle, E. Fat oxidation during exercise: Role of lipolysis, FFA availability and glycolytic flux. In W: Biochemistry of Exercise, Volume X; Hargreaves, M., Thompson, M., Eds.; Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL, USA, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Goedecke, J.; Lambert, E. Adaptation to a high-fat diet for endurance exercise: Review of potential underlying mechanisms. Int. J. Sport Med. 2003, 4, 1. [Google Scholar]
- Veech, R.L. The therapeutic implications of ketone bodies: The effects of ketone bodies in pathological conditions: Ketosis, ketogenic diet, redox states, insulin resistance, and mitochondrial metabolism. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 2004, 70, 309–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paoli, A.; Grimaldi, K.; D’Agostino, D.; Cenci, L.; Moro, T.; Bianco, A.; Palma, A. Ketogenic diet does not affect strength performance in elite artistic gymnasts. J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr. 2012, 9, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brinkworth, G.D.; Noakes, M.; Buckley, J.D.; Keogh, J.B.; Clifton, P.M. Long-term effects of a very-low-carbohydrate weight loss diet compared with an isocaloric low-fat diet after 12 mo. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 90, 23–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lambert, E.; Speechly, D.; Dennis, S.; Noakes, T. Enhanced endurance in trained cyclists during moderate intensity exercise following 2 weeks adaptation to a high fat diet. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 1994, 69, 287–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Phinney, S.; Bistrian, B.; Evans, W.; Gervino, E.; Blackburn, G. The human metabolic response to chronic ketosis without caloric restriction: Preservation of submaximal exercise capability with reduced carbohydrate oxidation. Metabolism 1983, 32, 769–776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pitsiladis, Y.; Smith, I.; Maughan, R. Increased fat availability enhances the capacity of trained individuals to perform prolonged exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1999, 31, 1570–1579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yeo, W.K.; Carey, B.A.; Spriet, L.; Haeley, L.; John, A. Fat adaptation in well-trained athletes: Effects on cell metabolism. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 2011, 36, 12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Helge, J. Long term fat diet adaptation effects on performance, training capacity, and fat utilization. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2002, 34, 1499–1504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spriet, L. Regulation of skeletal muscle fat oxidation during exercise in humans. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2002, 34, 1477–1484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spriet, L.; Watt, M. Regulatory mechanisms in the interaction between carbohydrate and lipid oxidation during exercise. Acta Physiol. Scand. 2003, 178, 443–452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coggan, A.; Raguso, C. Fat metabolism during high-intensity exercise in endurance-trained and untrained men. Metabolism 2000, 49, 122–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boyd, A.; Giamber, S.; Mager, M.; Lebovith, H. Lactate inhibition of lipolysis in exercising men. Metabolism 1974, 23, 531–536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goto, K.; Ishii, N.; Mizuno, A.; Takamatsu, K. Enhancment of fat metabolism by repeated bouts of moderate endurance exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 2007, 102, 2158–2164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goedecke, J.; Christie, C.; Wilson, G. Metabolic adaptations to a high-fat diet in endurance cyclists. Metabolism 1999, 48, 1509–1517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stepto, N.; Carey, A.; Staudacher, H.; Cummings, N.; Burke, L.; Hawley, J. Effect of short-term fat adaptation on high-intensity training. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2002, 34, 449–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sinha, S.R.; Kossoff, E.H. The ketogenic diet. Neurologist 2005, 11, 161–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kossof, E.H.; Pyzik, P.L.; Hladkly, H.D.; Freeman, J.M.; Vining, E.P.G. Kidney stones carbonic anhydrase inhibitors and the ketogenic diet. Epilepsia 2002, 43, 1168–1171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hartman, A.L.; Vining, P.G. Clinical aspects of ketogenic diet (Critical review). Epilepsia 2007, 48, 31–42. [Google Scholar]
- Kuipers, H.; Verstappen, F.T.J.; Keizer, H.A.; Guerten, P.; van Kranenburg, G. Variability of aerobic performance in the laboratory and its physiological correlates. Int. J. Sport Med. 1985, 6, 197–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, B.; Kuipers, H.; Snyder, A.C.; Keizer, H.A.; Jeukendrup, A.; Hesselink, M. A new approach for the determination of ventilator and lactate thresholds. Int. J. Sport Med. 1992, 13, 518–522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Czuba, M.; Zając, A.; Cholewa, J.; Poprzęcki, S.; Waśkiewicz, Z. Lactate threshold (D-max method) and maximal lactate steady-state in cyclists. J. Hum. Kinet. 2009, 21, 49–56. [Google Scholar]
- Atashak, S.; Sharafi, H.; Azarbayjani, M.; Stannard, S.; Goli, M.; Haghigi, M. Effect of omega-3 supplementation on the blood levels of oxidative stress, muscle damage and inflammation markers after acute resistance exercise in young athletes. Kinesiology 2013, 45, 22–29. [Google Scholar]
- Cartwright, I.; Pockley, A.; Galloway, J.; Graves, M.; Preston, F. The effects of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte membrane phospholipids, erythrocyte deformability and blood viscosity in healthy volunteers. Atherosclerosis 1985, 55, 267–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hopkins, W.G. Linear models and effect magnitudes for research, clinical and practical applications. Sports Sci. 2010, 14, 49–57. [Google Scholar]
- Langfort, J.; Pilis, W.; Zarzeczny, R.; Nazar, K.; Kaciuba-Uściłko, H. Effect of low-carbohydrat—Ketogenic diet on metabolic and hormonal responses to graded exercise in men. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 1996, 47, 361–371. [Google Scholar]
- Martin, W.; Dalsky, G.; Hurley, B. Effect of endurance training on plasma free fatty acid turnover and oxidation during exercise. Am. J. Physiol. 1993, 265, 708–714. [Google Scholar]
- Andrade, P.; Carmo, M. Dietary long-chain omega-3 fatty acids anti-inflammatory action: Potential application in the field of physical activity. Nutrition 2004, 20, 243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wooten, J.; Biggerstaff, K.; Ben-Ezra, V. Responses of LDL and HDL particle size and distribution to omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and aerobic exercise. Am. Physiol. Soc. 2009, 107, 794–800. [Google Scholar]
- Volek, J.; Sharman, M.; Love, D.; Avery, N.; Gomez, A.; Scheett, T.; Kraemer, W. Body composition and hormonal responses to a carbohydrate restricted diet. Metabolism 2002, 51, 864–870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Helge, J.; Watt, P.; Richter, E.; Rennie, M.; Kiens, B. Fat utilization during exercise; adaptation to fat rich diet increases utilization of plasma FA and VLDL-TG. J. Physiol. 2001, 537, 1009–1020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jensen, M. Fate of fatty acids at rest and during exercise: Regulatory mechanisms. Acta Physiol. Scand. 2003, 178, 385–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Havemann, L.; West, S.; Goedecke, J. Fat adaptation followed by carbohydrate-loading compromises high-intensity sprint performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 2006, 100, 194–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burke, L.; Kiens, B. Fat adaptation for athletic performance: The nail in the coffin? J. Appl. Physiol. 2006, 100, 7–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
© 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Zajac, A.; Poprzecki, S.; Maszczyk, A.; Czuba, M.; Michalczyk, M.; Zydek, G. The Effects of a Ketogenic Diet on Exercise Metabolism and Physical Performance in Off-Road Cyclists. Nutrients 2014, 6, 2493-2508. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6072493
Zajac A, Poprzecki S, Maszczyk A, Czuba M, Michalczyk M, Zydek G. The Effects of a Ketogenic Diet on Exercise Metabolism and Physical Performance in Off-Road Cyclists. Nutrients. 2014; 6(7):2493-2508. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6072493
Chicago/Turabian StyleZajac, Adam, Stanisław Poprzecki, Adam Maszczyk, Miłosz Czuba, Małgorzata Michalczyk, and Grzegorz Zydek. 2014. "The Effects of a Ketogenic Diet on Exercise Metabolism and Physical Performance in Off-Road Cyclists" Nutrients 6, no. 7: 2493-2508. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6072493