Readiness of Malaysian PV System to Utilize Energy Storage System with Second-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries
<p>Large-scale solar projects in Malaysia.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Renewable energy road map.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Energy storage system technologies.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>ESSs using SLEVBs at Multimedia University, Malaysia.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Blueprint for 30 kW on-grid ESS utilizing SLEVBs at Multimedia University, Malaysia [<a href="#B27-energies-17-03953" class="html-bibr">27</a>].</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Solar-powered streetlight that uses SLEVBs.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Blueprint for solar-powered streetlight using SLEVBs.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Efficiency of the different battery technologies used in energy storage systems.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Landscape of Malaysian PV System and Energy Storage Systems (ESSs)
2.1. Current Status of Malaysian PV System
2.2. Advantages of the Integration of Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) with Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
2.3. Challenges in the Integration of Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) with Photovoltaic (PV) Systems
3. Technologies for Energy Storage Systems
3.1. Batteries for Energy Storage Systems
3.2. Second-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries for Energy Storage Systems
3.2.1. Opportunities
3.2.2. Challenges
4. Readiness Assessment of Energy Storage Systems (ESSs)
4.1. Economic Viability
4.2. Environmental Impact
5. Policy and Regulatory Framework
6. Case Studies
- Residential Energy Storage: A residential home development in Kuala Lumpur uses ESSs and second-life EV batteries to store excess solar energy from rooftop photovoltaic panels [4]. Each household has a 10 kWh ESS using retired EV batteries to maximize solar energy self-consumption and reduce grid dependence.
- Commercial Energy Management: A Penang shopping mall uses ESSs with second-life EV batteries to optimize energy management and lower peak demand charges [71]. The 500 kWh system stores surplus energy during off-peak hours and discharges it during peak demand, decreasing the mall’s energy expenditures and improving grid stability.
- EV Charging Infrastructure: Malaysian EV charging stations use ESSs and second-life EV batteries for quick and dependable charging [4]. A 50 kWh ESS using retired EV batteries at each charging station enables the continual charging of electric vehicles and reduces the grid load during peak hours.
- Industrial Microgrid: The Johor Bahru industrial park has created a renewable energy-powered microgrid with ESSs and second-life EV batteries. The 1 MWh microgrid optimizes energy usage, reduces grid dependency, and improves power outage resilience for the park’s manufacturing facilities [63].
- Grid Support Project: Malaysia’s national utility, Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB), has developed a pilot project with EV manufacturers to reuse dead EV batteries for grid support [72]. These 2 MWh ESS units, used across various substations, regulate frequency and support voltage, improving grid stability and reliability countrywide.
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Research Summary | Research Gaps | Future Work | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Assessment of current PV installations and their integration with ESSs. | Lack of detailed regional data on PV system performance. | Conduct regional performance assessments of PV systems. | [16] |
Policy evaluation for PV and ESS deployment. | Insufficient analysis of policy impact on ESS adoption. | Study long-term impact of current policies on ESS uptake. | [17] |
Technical feasibility of integrating ESSs with PV systems in urban areas. | Limited case studies in urban settings. | Develop and analyze urban-specific case studies. | [18] |
Economic viability of PV-ESS in Malaysia. | Incomplete financial models considering local factors. | Develop comprehensive financial models for Malaysian context. | [18] |
Environmental impact assessment of PV-ESS integration. | Lack of comprehensive lifecycle analyses. | Perform detailed lifecycle environmental impact studies. | [19] |
Behavioral analysis of EV users and their impact on ESS deployment. | Limited user behavior studies specific to Malaysia. | Conduct surveys and studies on Malaysian EV user behavior. | [20] |
Technological advancements in PV systems and ESSs. | Slow adoption of latest technologies. | Promote adoption and adaptation of advanced technologies. | [17] |
Grid stability and integration of PV-ESSs. | Insufficient grid impact studies. | Study the impact of large-scale PV-ESS integration on grid stability. | [21] |
Business models for PV-ESS integration. | Limited exploration of innovative business models. | Develop and test new business models for PV-ESSs. | [22] |
Role of communication and information technology in PV-ESSs. | Limited integration of advanced IT solutions. | Explore IT solutions for efficient PV-ESS management. | [23] |
Comparative analysis of different ESS technologies. | Lack of comprehensive comparative studies. | Conduct detailed comparisons of ESS technologies. | [24] |
Impact of climate conditions on PV-ESS performance. | Limited studies on climate-specific impacts. | Investigate the effects of Malaysian climate on PV-ESSs. | [25] |
Infrastructure readiness for PV-ESSs. | Incomplete assessment of existing infrastructure. | Evaluate and upgrade infrastructure for PV-ESS integration. | [17] |
Case studies of successful PV-ESS projects. | Few documented successful case studies in Malaysia. | Document and analyze successful PV-ESS projects. | [26] |
Policy recommendations for enhancing PV-ESS adoption. | Lack of comprehensive policy frameworks. | Develop and propose new policy frameworks. | [24] |
Cost–benefit analysis of PV-ESSs. | Limited comprehensive cost–benefit analyses. | Perform detailed cost–benefit analyses for different scenarios. | [18] |
Technological challenges in PV-ESS integration. | Insufficient focus on technical barriers. | Identify and address technical challenges. | [21] |
Sustainability of second-life EV batteries in ESSs. | Limited research on second-life batteries’ sustainability. | Study the long-term sustainability of second-life EV batteries. | [27] |
Market potential of PV-ESSs. | Lack of market analysis specific to Malaysia. | Conduct market potential studies for PV-ESSs. | [27] |
Advantage | Description |
---|---|
Increased Energy Self-Consumption | Energy storage allows PV system owners to store excess energy generated during sunny periods for later use, increasing self-consumption and reducing reliance on the grid [28]. |
Grid Independence | PV-ESSs can operate independently of the grid, providing power during grid outages or in remote areas where grid connection is unavailable or unreliable. |
Peak Demand Shaving | Energy storage enables PV system owners to reduce peak demand charges by discharging stored energy during periods of high electricity demand, thereby lowering their overall electricity costs. |
Enhanced Grid Stability | ESS integration stabilizes the grid by smoothing PV power production fluctuations and minimizing voltage swings from intermittent renewable energy sources [29]. |
Time-of-Use Tariff Optimization | ESS integration lets PV system owners store excess energy while power costs are low and discharge it during peak demand, saving money. |
Improved Power Quality | In places with significant PV penetration, ESSs can provide reactive power and regulate voltage, enhancing power quality and grid dependability. |
Renewable Energy Integration | PV-ESS integration provides dispatchable power and balancing services to integrate renewable energy sources into the grid, improving grid reliability and flexibility [30]. |
Provision of Ancillary Services | Integrating ESSs with PV systems allows for frequency regulation, spinning reserves, and voltage support, improving grid stability and reliability. |
Load-Shifting for Tariff Arbitrage | PV-ESSs let consumers use time-of-use tariffs and reduce power bills by shifting energy usage from peak to off-peak. |
Environmental Benefits | ESSs’ integration with PV systems delivers clean, renewable energy, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving sustainability [31]. |
Challenge | Solution | Description |
---|---|---|
Intermittency and Variability | Advanced Forecasting Algorithms | Use advanced algorithms and machine learning to improve solar PV generation forecasts, which will help manage variability and integrate renewable energy into the grid more effectively. |
Energy Imbalance | Demand–Response Programs | Implement programs to shift energy usage during peak times, balancing load demands and energy supply, enhancing grid stability, and reducing the need for additional power generation. |
System Sizing and Scalability | Capacity Optimization Models | Utilize models to determine the optimal size of energy storage systems, ensuring cost efficiency and scalability for future expansion and changing energy needs. |
Battery Degradation and Lifetime | Lifecycle Assessment | Conduct assessments to monitor and predict battery performance, helping plan for timely replacements and improve system reliability and longevity. |
Complex Energy Management | Smart Energy Management Systems | Implement systems that use advanced software and IoT devices to efficiently manage and distribute energy, balancing supply and demand and optimizing energy usage. |
Costs and Economic Viability | Cost–Benefit Analysis | Perform analyses to assess long-term savings and ROI, evaluating installation, operational, and maintenance costs to justify investments and attract funding. |
Regulations and Grid Interconnection | Policy Impact Analysis | Analyze and adapt policies to facilitate grid interconnection, ensuring compliance with regulations and promoting renewable energy adoption and infrastructure resilience. |
Safety and Environmental Concerns | Safety Standards and Environmental Impact Assessments | Ensure compliance with safety standards and conduct environmental impact assessments to mitigate risks, protect the environment, and gain regulatory approval. |
Technological Compatibility | Standardization and Integration Testing | Develop standardized testing protocols to ensure compatibility with existing and future technologies, reducing technical issues and ensuring seamless operation. |
Education and Awareness | Awareness Campaigns | Increase awareness through targeted campaigns, highlighting the benefits and best practices of energy storage systems to drive adoption and support the transition to sustainable energy solutions. |
Research Summary | Research Gaps | Future Work | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Development of high-density lithium-ion batteries. | Limited cycle life and safety concerns. | Improve safety features and enhance cycle life through new materials. | [40] |
Exploration of solid-state batteries. | High production costs and scalability issues. | Reduce manufacturing costs and improve scalability. | [41] |
Evaluation of flow batteries for grid storage. | Low energy density and high maintenance. | Increase energy density and reduce maintenance requirements. | [42] |
Use of second-life EV batteries in ESSs. | Limited data on performance and degradation. | Conduct long-term performance and degradation studies. | [43] |
Integration of supercapacitors with batteries. | Challenges in balancing energy and power density. | Optimize hybrid systems for better energy and power management. | [44] |
Advanced battery management systems (BMSs). | Inadequate predictive maintenance capabilities. | Develop more accurate predictive maintenance algorithms. | [45] |
Role of ESSs in renewable energy integration. | Inconsistent performance under varying environmental conditions. | Test and adapt ESS technologies to different climatic conditions. | [27] |
Economic analysis of ESS deployment. | Insufficient real-world cost–benefit analyses. | Conduct comprehensive economic assessments including externalities. | [27] |
Environmental impact of ESS technologies. | Limited lifecycle impact studies. | Perform detailed lifecycle environmental assessments. | [19] |
Policy frameworks for ESS adoption. | Lack of supportive policies and incentives. | Develop and implement effective policies and incentives for ESS. | [24] |
Battery Type | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Lithium-Ion [46] | High energy density: Provides more energy storage capacity in a smaller footprint. Long cycle life: Capable of thousands of charge–discharge cycles. Rapid charging: Allows for quick recharging times. Low self-discharge rate: Retains charge for longer periods. | High cost: Lithium-ion batteries are relatively expensive compared to other battery types. Safety concerns: Risk of thermal runaway and fire. Limited lifespan: Degradation over time, especially at high temperatures. Environmental impact: Concerns regarding mining and disposal. |
Lead-Acid [47] | Low cost: Relatively inexpensive compared to other battery technologies. Mature technology: Well-established and widely understood. Recyclable: Lead-acid batteries can be recycled. Wide operating temperature range: Suitable for various environments. | Low energy density: Provides lower energy storage capacity per unit weight or volume. Limited cycle life: Fewer charge–discharge cycles compared to some other battery types. Maintenance requirements: Requires periodic maintenance, including watering and cleaning. Environmental concerns: Lead and sulfuric acid components pose environmental risks. |
Flow Batteries [48] | Scalability: Easily scalable to meet different energy storage requirements. Long cycle life: Can endure numerous charge–discharge cycles with minimal degradation. Safety: Non-flammable electrolytes enhance safety. Decoupled power and energy: Offers flexibility in design. | Complex design: Flow batteries can be more complex and require additional components compared to some other battery types. Lower energy density: Typically lower energy density compared to lithium-ion batteries. Limited temperature range: Performance may degrade at extreme temperatures. Cost: Higher initial cost compared to some other battery technologies. |
Sodium–Sulfur [49] | High energy density: Offers high energy storage capacity. High efficiency: Provides efficient charge–discharge cycles. Long cycle life: Capable of enduring numerous cycles without significant degradation. Suitable for high-temperature environments: Performs well in elevated temperatures. | High operating temperature: Requires high operating temperatures to maintain functionality, limiting deployment options. Safety concerns: Sodium and sulfur components can be hazardous. Limited applications: Primarily suited for utility-scale applications, less practical for smaller-scale deployments. Cost: High initial cost and maintenance expenses. |
Nickel–Cadmium [50] | Long cycle life: Can withstand thousands of charge–discharge cycles. High discharge rates: Suitable for applications requiring high power output. Wide operating temperature range: Performs well in various environmental conditions. Low maintenance: Requires minimal maintenance. | Toxicity: Cadmium component poses environmental and health risks. Limited energy density: Lower energy density compared to some newer battery technologies. Memory effect: Susceptible to memory effect if not properly maintained. High self-discharge rate: May lose charge relatively quickly when not in use. |
Nickel–Metal Hydride [51] | High energy density: Provides a good balance between energy storage capacity and size. Environmentally friendly: Contains no toxic metals like cadmium or lead. Long cycle life: Capable of enduring hundreds to thousands of charge–discharge cycles. Low self-discharge rate: Retains charge for extended periods. | Limited temperature range: Performance may degrade at extreme temperatures. Limited lifespan: Degradation over time, especially with frequent cycling. Memory effect: Susceptible to memory effect, although less so than nickel–cadmium batteries. High self-discharge rate: May lose charge relatively quickly when not in use. |
Aspect | Analysis |
---|---|
Compatibility with Existing PV Installations | Energy storage systems (ESSs) work well with Malaysian PV installations. ESSs can improve PV system efficiency and reliability by storing excess energy during high solar irradiance periods and discharging it during periods of low solar output or high energy demand. This lets PV system owners maximize self-consumption, reduce grid dependence, and maximize their renewable energy use. ESSs can be integrated with new and existing PV installations with a proper system design and setup, minimizing compatibility difficulties. |
Availability of ESS Technologies in the Market | Malaysia has a growing market for energy storage system (ESS) technology. Local and foreign manufacturers offer lithium-ion, lead-acid, flow, and sodium-ion ESS technologies. The increased interest and investment in innovative ESS solutions like second-life electric vehicle (EV) batteries and hybrid energy storage systems expands PV system owners’ energy storage options. |
Grid Infrastructure Capacity for ESS Integration | Malaysia’s grid infrastructure can integrate energy storage systems (ESSs). ESSs can help the grid with voltage regulation, frequency stability, and grid congestion by offering auxiliary services, peak shaving, and grid stabilization. To achieve their seamless integration and optimal operation, significant ESSs deployment may require grid infrastructure modifications, including grid-scale energy storage systems and smart grid technology. |
Readiness Factor | Description | Assessment |
---|---|---|
Technical Feasibility | Evaluation of the technical compatibility, reliability, and performance when integrating second-life EV batteries with ESSs | High |
Regulatory Framework | Assessment of existing regulations and policies governing energy storage and EV battery repurposing in Malaysia | Developing |
Economic Viability | Analysis of the cost-effectiveness, return on investment, and financial incentives for ESSs using second-life EV batteries | Moderate |
Environmental Impact | Evaluation of the environmental benefits, including carbon footprint reduction and waste minimization | Positive |
Infrastructure | Assessment of the existing infrastructure, including grid connectivity and battery recycling facilities | Adequate |
Market Maturity | Analysis of the market readiness, demand, and adoption rates of ESSs with second-life EV batteries in Malaysia | Emerging |
Public Awareness | Evaluation of public awareness, education, and acceptance of energy storage solutions and EV battery recycling | Growing |
Research and Development | Review of ongoing research, innovation, and development efforts in ESS technology and EV battery repurposing | Ongoing |
Industry Collaboration | Assessment of collaboration and partnerships among stakeholders, including the government, industry, and academics | Increasing |
Aspect | Details |
---|---|
Initial Investment Costs | Installation of a 5 kW rooftop PV system: MYR 20,000 Purchase of a 10 kWh ESS with an SLEVB: MYR 25,000 Total Initial Investment: MYR 45,000 |
Operational Savings | Average monthly electricity bill savings: MYR 200 Annual electricity bill savings: MYR 2400 |
Revenue Streams | Net Metering: assuming a feed-in tariff rate of 0.30 MYR per kWh for exported energy, the homeowner earns additional revenue for surplus electricity exported to the grid Estimated annual revenue from net metering: MYR 600 |
Payback Period and Return on Investment (ROI) | |
Financial Incentives and Financing Options | The homeowner may be eligible for government incentives such as rebates or tax credits for renewable energy installations. Green financing options offering low-interest loans or favorable repayment terms may further reduce the upfront investment burden |
Maintenance and Operational Costs | Estimated annual maintenance costs of PV-ESS: MYR 500 Total maintenance costs over 25 years: MYR 12,500 |
Project-specific Factors | Solar irradiance levels and energy consumption patterns at the residential location influence the system’s performance and potential savings. Grid connection costs and regulatory requirements may impact project feasibility and financial returns |
Company/Organization Name | Description/Activities |
---|---|
Cenviro Group | Leading environmental solutions provider offering waste management services including battery recycling and hazardous waste disposal. |
Greenrecycle Sdn Bhd | Recycling company specializing in various materials including batteries and electronic waste. |
Battery Recycling Malaysia | Company focused on the collection and recycling of various types of batteries, including EV batteries, to recover valuable materials and reduce environmental pollution. |
Mitsubishi Electric (Malaysia) | Involved in various industries, including the automotive industry, with potential initiatives or partnerships related to EV battery recycling and sustainability. |
Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) & Multimedia University (MMU) | Research institution working with industry partners to develop sustainable EV battery recycling solutions. |
Malaysia Automotive, Robotics and IoT Institute (MARii) | Malaysian automobile industry development agency under the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) which maybe active in EV battery recycling and sustainability. |
Local Scrap Metal Dealers and Recycling Centers | EV batteries can be collected and recycled by local scrap metal merchants and recycling centers in Malaysia. |
Policy/Regulation | Description |
---|---|
National Renewable Energy Policy (NREP) | Malaysia’s NREP aims to increase the share of renewable energy in the country’s energy mix. It provides strategic directions and sets targets for renewable energy deployment, which may include provisions for integrating ESSs with second-life EV batteries [7]. |
Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) Act | The SEDA Act established the Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) Malaysia, responsible for promoting and regulating renewable energy in Malaysia. SEDA may implement programs and initiatives supporting the integration of ESSs with EV batteries [7]. |
Energy Commission Act | The Energy Commission Act empowers the Energy Commission of Malaysia (EC) to regulate the electricity supply industry in Malaysia. The EC may develop regulations and guidelines for integrating ESSs with EV batteries, ensuring their safety, reliability, and grid compatibility [66]. |
Grid Code | The Grid Code sets the technical and operational requirements for connecting and operating electricity systems in Malaysia. It may include provisions for integrating ESSs with EV batteries and specify grid connection standards, safety requirements, and operational protocols [67]. |
Net Energy Metering (NEM) Scheme | Malaysia’s NEM scheme allows renewable energy consumers to offset their electricity bills by exporting excess energy to the grid. It may support the integration of ESSs with EV batteries by providing incentives or tariff structures for energy storage and self-consumption [7]. |
Environmental Quality Act | The Environmental Quality Act governs environmental protection and pollution control in Malaysia. It may regulate the recycling and disposal of EV batteries and ESS components, ensuring compliance with environmental standards and minimizing adverse environmental impacts [68]. |
National Automotive Policy (NAP) | The NAP outlines Malaysia’s strategy for its automotive industry, including regulations and incentives for electric vehicles (EVs). It may address battery recycling and repurposing, creating opportunities for integrating second-life EV batteries into stationary storage applications [69]. |
Industry Standards and Certifications | Various industry standards and certifications, such as ISO standards and product certifications, ensure the quality, safety, and performance of ESS and EV batteries. Compliance with these standards is essential for regulatory approval and market acceptance [70]. |
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Sarker, M.T.; Haram, M.H.S.M.; Shern, S.J.; Ramasamy, G.; Al Farid, F. Readiness of Malaysian PV System to Utilize Energy Storage System with Second-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries. Energies 2024, 17, 3953. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163953
Sarker MT, Haram MHSM, Shern SJ, Ramasamy G, Al Farid F. Readiness of Malaysian PV System to Utilize Energy Storage System with Second-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries. Energies. 2024; 17(16):3953. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163953
Chicago/Turabian StyleSarker, Md. Tanjil, Mohammed Hussein Saleh Mohammed Haram, Siow Jat Shern, Gobbi Ramasamy, and Fahmid Al Farid. 2024. "Readiness of Malaysian PV System to Utilize Energy Storage System with Second-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries" Energies 17, no. 16: 3953. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163953