Alternative Methods of Replacing Electric Batteries in Public Transport Vehicles
<p>Diagram showing the type of propulsion system of buses used in Poland’s provincial cities.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Graph showing the share of bus manufacturers used in Poland’s provincial cities.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Share of electric bus models used in Poland’s provincial cities.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Procedure for replacing the battery in the following steps—top view.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Diagram of the underground NEP exchange system. Green color—battery charged, red color—battery discharged.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Battery replacement procedure using NEP technology.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Urban Public Transport Vehicles
2.1. Problems and Disadvantages of Current Buses
2.2. Electric Vehicles in Public Transport
- −
- Metro: It is a high-speed rail transport system powered by electricity from the grid. The metro network is most often underground, but there are exceptions to this. Around the world, metro networks are adapted to local needs, which means building metro infrastructure above ground or on flyovers. An interesting example is the underground in Vancouver, Canada, where much of the infrastructure is located above ground and on flyovers [28]. In addition, this metro is autonomous. The metro network has a large capacity to transport large numbers of passengers [29]. It is also characterized by high construction costs due to the need to build underground tunnels, tracks, large platforms, and all the necessary infrastructure to enable the facility to operate. For this reason, metro lines are built in large cities. In Poland, the only city with metro lines is Warsaw. There are two lines, M1 and M2, in use. However, an extension with a third metro line is planned [30].
- −
- Tram: It is a system of rail transport running on city streets, powered by electricity from the grid via a pantograph and less often by a third rail. Their infrastructure is relatively expensive, but trams are a fast, convenient means of transport that are not prone to congestion [31,32]. In Poland, trams can be found in 12 cities, including the Upper Silesian industrial district and the Lodz district. Warsaw boasts the highest number of vehicles, i.e., 766, whereas the greatest length of routes, i.e., 1.41 km/1000 people, are in Wroclaw.
- −
- Trolleybus: It is an electric bus powered by electricity from the grid via a pantograph. Its infrastructure is cheaper than that needed for a tram, as it does not require a track. Its biggest disadvantage is its dependence on catenary wires and its susceptibility to congestion [33,34]. Unlike a tram, a trolley bus travels on roads with congestion, and it is not possible to create bus lanes everywhere. Currently, trolleybuses in Poland operate in three cities, namely Lublin, Gdynia, and Tychy. The first trolleybus network in Poland, in terms of rolling stock in use, is the one in Lublin, with 124 trolleybuses. trolleybuses. At present, not all trolleybuses are completely dependent on the overhead line. An example of such a vehicle is the Ursus T70116, which is equipped with lithium-polymer batteries, allowing it to travel up to 5 km under full load without traction power [35].
- −
- Electric bus: It is a bus that has electric motors instead of a traditional internal combustion engine and its power source in the form of a battery. The two most important components of an electric bus affecting its efficiency are the electric motor and the battery. Currently, electric buses use permanent magnet synchronous motors, asynchronous traction motors, and motors mounted directly in the hub-integrated or electric axle of the vehicle [36]. The battery used in buses has by far the most important impact on vehicle use.
- −
- No harmful emissions while driving.
- −
- Significantly reduced particulate emissions during use (the presence of brake systems and tires causes abrasion during use, which in turn emits some pollutants).
- −
- Very low noise levels (noise is emitted by electric motors and rolling tires, which are quiet at low speeds).
- −
- Much lower levels of vibration are transmitted to the body.
- −
- Increased passenger comfort.
- −
- No regular consumption and disposal of operating fluids (such as engine oils, gearbox oils, drive bridge oils, and coolants).
- −
- No production of waste during servicing in the form of used oil, air, or water filters.
- −
- The simplicity of construction.
- −
- No need for complex specialized servicing and repairs.
- −
- Up to 30% energy recuperation during braking.
3. Methods of Charging Electric Vehicles
- −
- Plug-in—a method of charging that takes several hours—is the slowest method designed for charging in bus depots at night. The weakest link in this solution is the plug-in, which limits the current transmitted [47]. The advantages of this method are low cost, no need to build infrastructure, and no excessive load on the electricity grid. The biggest disadvantage is the high charging time [48].
- −
- Pantograph—a means of rapid recharging in a few hours or a quick charge of several minutes. The bus must be equipped with a pantograph, and the charging site must have special infrastructure [49]. The biggest advantage is the speed of recharging, while the disadvantages are the need for infrastructure, high costs, and the strain on the electricity grid [50].
- −
- Inductive charging—the most expensive and least frequently used solution. It involves installing an inductive device in a suitable place, for example, an induction hob [51]. Charging starts when the vehicle pulls into a suitable location. The whole process is wireless and autonomous [36]. The solution is the fastest way of charging, but it is not economically efficient [52].
4. Analysis of the Current State of the Rolling Stock Based on Selected Polish Cities
4.1. Battery Replacement in Towns with up to 150,000 Inhabitants (Hereafter “Small Towns”)—Estimated Values Based on Own Studies
4.2. Battery Replacements in Cities with up to 1 Million Inhabitants (Hereafter “Large Cities”)—Estimated Values Based on Own Studies
4.3. Average Kilometers Traveled by Urban Rolling Stock
5. Battery Replacement System Concept for Electric Buses
5.1. Main Features of the Battery Replacement System for Electric Buses
5.2. Battery Replacement Procedure with a Description of Individual Components
| 20 s; |
| 25 s; |
| 25 s; |
| 20 s; |
| 35 s; |
| 25 s; |
| 20 s. |
5.3. Analysis of the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Concept
5.4. Possible Solutions Using Renewable Energy Sources
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Mode of Transport | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Tram |
|
|
Bus |
|
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Electric bus |
|
|
Trolleybus |
|
|
Metro |
|
|
Public/individual car transport |
|
|
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
|
|
Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|
|
|
Plug-in charging |
|
Pantograph charging |
|
Inductive charging |
|
EURO 3 | EURO 3 EEV | EURO 4 | EURO 5 | EURO 6 | CNG MAN 2866DUH03 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CO | 5.45 | 3.00 | 4.00 | 4.00 | 4.00 | 0.12 |
NMHC | 0.78 | 0.40 | 0.55 | 0.55 | 0.16 | - |
CH4 | 1.60 | 0.65 | 1.10 | 1.10 | 0.50 | 0.02 |
NOx | 5.00 | 2.00 | 3.50 | 2.00 | 0.46 | 0.36 |
PM | 0.16 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
All Lines of a Selected Entity with up to 150,000 Inhabitants | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Time Range | Average of a Single Working Day | Weekend | Total Working Days | All Week |
Number of kilometers | 12,438 | 14,691 | 62,189 | 76,880 |
Battery replacement for articulated buses | 10 | 12 | 50 | 62 |
Standard bus battery replacement | 35 | 41 | 174 | 215 |
Exchanges together | 45 | 53 | 224 | 277 |
Exchanges per hour on average | 2 | 1 | 2 | |
Approximate number of battery changes per year | 14,392 |
All Lines of a Selected Entity with up to 1 Million Inhabitants | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Time Range | Average of a Single Working Day | Weekend | Total Working Days | All Week |
Number of kilometers | 137,879 | 161,581 | 693,607 | 855,188 |
Battery replacement for articulated buses | 345 | 404 | 1734 | 2138 |
Standard bus battery replacement | 230 | 269 | 1156 | 1425 |
Exchanges together | 574 | 673 | 2890 | 3563 |
Exchanges per hour on average | 24 | 14 | 21 | |
Approximate number of battery changes per year | 185,291 |
Number of bus fleets in small towns | 98 | ||
Average number of kilometers per vehicle | Working day | Saturday/Sunday | All week |
127 | 75 | 112 | |
Number of bus fleets in large cities | 627 | ||
Average number of kilometers per vehicle | Working day | Saturday/Sunday | All week |
220 | 129 | 195 |
UVES Energy Gen 2.0 | |||||
Cell configuration | Voltage | Capacity | Energy | ||
Min. | Norm | Max. | 100 Ah | 66.6 kWh | |
180S1P | 504 V | 666 V | 774 V | ||
Battery operating conditions | |||||
Continuous discharge current | 200 A | ||||
Discharge current maximum (10 s) | 400 A | ||||
Discharge temperature range | −20 °C do 55 °C | ||||
Continuous charging current | 100 A | ||||
Maximum charging current (10 s) | 300 A | ||||
Charging temperature range | −20 °C do 55 °C | ||||
Protection class | IP 67 | ||||
Heat dissipation | Liquid cooling | ||||
Pre-charging circuit | Yes |
Internal factors | Strengths | Weaknesses |
|
| |
External factors | Opportunities | Threats |
|
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Masłowski, D.; Kulińska, E.; Krzewicki, Ł. Alternative Methods of Replacing Electric Batteries in Public Transport Vehicles. Energies 2023, 16, 5828. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155828
Masłowski D, Kulińska E, Krzewicki Ł. Alternative Methods of Replacing Electric Batteries in Public Transport Vehicles. Energies. 2023; 16(15):5828. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155828
Chicago/Turabian StyleMasłowski, Dariusz, Ewa Kulińska, and Łukasz Krzewicki. 2023. "Alternative Methods of Replacing Electric Batteries in Public Transport Vehicles" Energies 16, no. 15: 5828. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155828