Abstract
Polar temperatures over the last several million years have, at times, been slightly warmer than today, yet global mean sea level has been 6–9 metres higher as recently as the Last Interglacial (130,000 to 115,000 years ago) and possibly higher during the Pliocene epoch (about three million years ago). In both cases the Antarctic ice sheet has been implicated as the primary contributor, hinting at its future vulnerability. Here we use a model coupling ice sheet and climate dynamics—including previously underappreciated processes linking atmospheric warming with hydrofracturing of buttressing ice shelves and structural collapse of marine-terminating ice cliffs—that is calibrated against Pliocene and Last Interglacial sea-level estimates and applied to future greenhouse gas emission scenarios. Antarctica has the potential to contribute more than a metre of sea-level rise by 2100 and more than 15 metres by 2500, if emissions continue unabated. In this case atmospheric warming will soon become the dominant driver of ice loss, but prolonged ocean warming will delay its recovery for thousands of years.
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05 April 2016
A couple of missing citations to the Extended Data Tables were corrected in the HTML on 5 April 2016.
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Acknowledgements
We thank C. Shields at NCAR for providing CCSM4 ocean model data. NCAR is sponsored by the NSF. We also thank R. Kopp for providing LIG sea-level data, and R. Alley, A. Dutton, and M. Raymo for discussions. This research was supported by the NSF under awards OCE 1202632 PLIOMAX project and AGS 1203910/1203792.
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R.M.D. and D.P. conceived the model experiments, developed the models, and wrote the manuscript.
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Extended data figures and tables
Extended Data Figure 1 Warm mid-Pliocene climate and ice-sheet simulation.
a, January (warmest monthly mean) difference in 2-m (surface) air temperature simulated by the RCM relative to a preindustrial control simulation with 280 p.p.m.v. CO2 and present-day orbit. The temperature difference is lapse-rate-corrected to account for the change in ice-sheet geometry and surface elevations. The Pliocene simulation uses 400 p.p.m.v. CO2, a warm austral summer orbit, and assumes a retreated WAIS to represent maximum Pliocene warm conditions. b, The Pliocene ice-sheet is shown after 5,000 model years, driven by the RCM climate in a, and assuming 2 °C ocean warming relative to a modern ocean climatology32. In the model formulation used here, maximum Pliocene ice-sheet retreat with default model parameters is equivalent to 11.26 m GMSL, about 6 m less than in ref. 25.
Extended Data Figure 2 LIG greenhouse gases, orbital parameters, and RCM climates.
a, Greenhouse gas concentrations9,72 converted to radiative forcing shows the LIG interval (light red bar) and the best opportunity for ice-sheet retreat. b, Summer insulation at 70° latitude in both hemispheres73 (red, south; blue, north) and summer duration at 70° S (black)79 shown over the last 150 kyr, and the two orbital time slices (vertical dashed black lines at 128 kyr ago and 116 kyr ago). c, Table showing the greenhouse gas atmospheric mixing ratios (CO2 in parts per million by volume; CH4 and N2O in parts per billion by volume) and orbital parameters (eccentricity, obliquity, precession) used in the GCM–RCM at the LIG time slices (dashed lines 1 and 2 in a and b), respectively. d–f, January (warmest monthly mean) differences in 2-m surface air temperature relative to a preindustrial control simulation at 128 kyr ago (d), 116 kyr ago (e), and the present-day (2015) (f). Simulated austral summer temperatures at 116 kyr ago (e) with relatively high-intensity summer insolation is warmer than the long-duration summer orbit at 128 kyr ago (d), but unlike the Pliocene (Extended Data Fig. 1a), neither LIG climatology is as warm as the present day, producing little to no rain or surface melt on ice-shelf surfaces.
Extended Data Figure 3 Effect of Southern Ocean warming on Antarctic surface air temperatures and the ice sheet at 128 kyr ago.
a–c, January (warmest monthly mean) differences in 2-m surface air temperature at 128 kyr ago, relative to a preindustrial control simulation (top row). GHG, greenhouse gas; SST, sea surface temperature. d, e, Ice-sheet thickness (m) after 5,000 model years, driven by the corresponding climate in a–c. a and d, Without climate–ice sheet coupling (present-day ice extent and surface ocean temperatures in the RCM), and prescribed 5 °C sub-surface ocean warming felt only by the ice sheet. b and e, With asynchronous coupling between the RCM atmosphere and ice sheet, and prescribed 5 °C sub-surface ocean warming felt only by the ice sheet. c and f, With asynchronous coupling between the RCM atmosphere and ice sheet, prescribed 3 °C sub-surface ocean warming felt by the ice sheet, and ~2 °C surface ocean warming felt by the RCM atmosphere. c shows the locations of East Antarctic ice cores (EDC, EPICA Dome C; V, Vostock; DF, Dome F; EDML, EPICA Dronning Maud Land) indicating warming early in the interglacial29 and previously attributed to WAIS retreat80; this warming is similar to that simulated in c from a combination of ice-sheet retreat and warmer Southern Ocean temperatures, supporting the notion that the timing of LIG retreat was largely driven by far-field ocean influences, rather than local astronomical forcing.
Extended Data Figure 4 RCM climates used in future, time-continuous RCP scenarios and evolving ice-surface melt rates linked to hydrofracturing model physics.
a–d, January surface (2-m) air temperatures simulated by the RCM at the present-day (2015) (a), twice the present level of carbon dioxide, 2 × CO2 (b), 4 × CO2 (c), and 8 × CO2 (d) with the retreating ice sheet. The colour scale is the same in all panels. Yellow to red colours indicate temperatures above freezing with the potential for summer rain, and surface meltwater production. e–h, Evolving ice-surface meltwater production (in metres per year) in the time-evolving RCP8.5 ice-sheet simulations, driven by a time-continuous RCM climatology (Methods) following the RCP8.5 greenhouse gas time series (Fig. 4a). Black lines show the positions of grounding lines and ice-shelf calving fronts at discrete time intervals—e, 2050; f, 2100; g, 2150; and h, 2500—with superposed meltwater production rates.
Extended Data Figure 5 NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures and oceanic sub-ice-shelf melt rates.
a, RCP2.6 ocean warming at 400-m depth, shown as the difference of decadal averages from 1950–1960 to 2290–2300. b, Same as a but for RCP4.5. c, Same as a but for RCP8.5. d, CCSM4 RCP8.5 ocean warming from 1950–1960 to 2010–2020 showing little to no warming in the Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas. The red line shows the area of imposed, additional ocean warming. e, f, Oceanic melt rates at 2015 calculated by the ice-sheet model from interpolated CCSM4 temperatures (e), and with +3 °C adjustment in the Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas (f), corresponding to the area within the red line in d.
Extended Data Figure 6 Effect of future ocean warming only.
a, Antarctic contribution to future GMSL rise in long, 5,000-yr ice-sheet simulations driven by sub-surface ocean warming simulated by CCSM4, following RCP8.5 (black line), with a +3 °C adjustment in the Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas (blue line; see Extended Data Fig. 5) and a warmer +5 °C adjustment (red line). Atmospheric temperatures and precipitation are maintained at their present values. b–d, Ice-sheet thickness at model-year 5,000, driven by sub-surface ocean forcing from CCSM4 (b) and from CCSM4 with a +3 °C (c) or +5 °C (d) adjustment in the Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas. Note the near-complete loss of ice shelves, but modest grounding-line retreat in b, the retreat of Pine Island Glacier in c, and the near-complete collapse of WAIS once a stability threshold in the Thwaites Glacier grounding line is reached in d.
Extended Data Figure 7 The long-term future of the ice sheet and GMSL over the next 5,000 years following RCP8.5 and RCP4.5.
a, Equivalent CO2 forcing following RCP8.5 until the year 2500, and then assuming zero emissions after 2500 and allowing a natural relaxation of greenhouse gas levels (red) or assuming a fast, engineered drawdown (blue) with an e-folding timescale of 100 years. b. Antarctic contribution to GMSL over the next 5,000 years, following the greenhouse gas scenarios in a. c, The same as a, except showing long-term RCP4.5 greenhouse gas forcing. d, The same as b, except following the RCP4.5 scenarios in c. The insets in b and d show the ice sheet (and remaining sea-level rise) after 5,000 model years in RCP8.5 and RCP4.5, respectively, assuming fast CO2 drawdown (blue lines), highlighting the multi-millennial commitment to a loss of marine-based Antarctic ice, even in the moderate RCP4.5 scenario. Note the different y-axes in RCP8.5 versus RCP4.5.
Extended Data Figure 8 Freshwater input to the Southern Ocean.
Total freshwater and iceberg flux from 1950 to 2500, following the future RCP scenarios shown in Fig. 4b. Freshwater input calculations include contributions from ice loss above and below sea level and exceed 1 Sv in RCP8.5.
Supplementary information
RCP2.6 ice-sheet thickness (m) from 1950 to 2500 CE
This video shows various aspects of our ice-sheet simulations from 1950 to 2500 CE, following future greenhouse-gas emission scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5. Animations show the time-evolution of ice sheet thickness (m), oceanic melt rates (m a-1) driven by NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures, and surface melt-water production (m a-1) driven by our atmospheric RCM. Surface ice speeds (m a-1) illustrate the evolution of ice streams during ice-sheet retreat in the RCP8.5 scenario. The simulations in the videos use default model parameters and correspond to the simulations shown in Figure 4. (MOV 470 kb)
RCP4.5 ice-sheet thickness (m) from 1950 to 2500 CE
This video shows various aspects of our ice-sheet simulations from 1950 to 2500 CE, following future greenhouse-gas emission scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5. Animations show the time-evolution of ice sheet thickness (m), oceanic melt rates (m a-1) driven by NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures, and surface melt-water production (m a-1) driven by our atmospheric RCM. Surface ice speeds (m a-1) illustrate the evolution of ice streams during ice-sheet retreat in the RCP8.5 scenario. The simulations in the videos use default model parameters and correspond to the simulations shown in Figure 4. (MOV 522 kb)
RCP8.5 ice-sheet thickness (m) from 1950 to 2500 CE
This video shows various aspects of our ice-sheet simulations from 1950 to 2500 CE, following future greenhouse-gas emission scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5. Animations show the time-evolution of ice sheet thickness (m), oceanic melt rates (m a-1) driven by NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures, and surface melt-water production (m a-1) driven by our atmospheric RCM. Surface ice speeds (m a-1) illustrate the evolution of ice streams during ice-sheet retreat in the RCP8.5 scenario. The simulations in the videos use default model parameters and correspond to the simulations shown in Figure 4. (MOV 584 kb)
RCP2.6 oceanic melt rates (m a-1) from 1950 to 2500 CE
This video shows various aspects of our ice-sheet simulations from 1950 to 2500 CE, following future greenhouse-gas emission scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5. Animations show the time-evolution of ice sheet thickness (m), oceanic melt rates (m a-1) driven by NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures, and surface melt-water production (m a-1) driven by our atmospheric RCM. Surface ice speeds (m a-1) illustrate the evolution of ice streams during ice-sheet retreat in the RCP8.5 scenario. The simulations in the videos use default model parameters and correspond to the simulations shown in Figure 4. (MOV 593 kb)
RCP4.5 oceanic melt rates (m a-1) from 1950 to 2500 CE
This video shows various aspects of our ice-sheet simulations from 1950 to 2500 CE, following future greenhouse-gas emission scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5. Animations show the time-evolution of ice sheet thickness (m), oceanic melt rates (m a-1) driven by NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures, and surface melt-water production (m a-1) driven by our atmospheric RCM. Surface ice speeds (m a-1) illustrate the evolution of ice streams during ice-sheet retreat in the RCP8.5 scenario. The simulations in the videos use default model parameters and correspond to the simulations shown in Figure 4. (MOV 691 kb)
RCP8.5 oceanic melt rates (m a-1) from 1950 to 2500 CE
This video shows various aspects of our ice-sheet simulations from 1950 to 2500 CE, following future greenhouse-gas emission scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5. Animations show the time-evolution of ice sheet thickness (m), oceanic melt rates (m a-1) driven by NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures, and surface melt-water production (m a-1) driven by our atmospheric RCM. Surface ice speeds (m a-1) illustrate the evolution of ice streams during ice-sheet retreat in the RCP8.5 scenario. The simulations in the videos use default model parameters and correspond to the simulations shown in Figure 4. (MOV 808 kb)
RCP2.6 surface melt-water production (m a-1) from 1950 to 2500 CE
This video shows various aspects of our ice-sheet simulations from 1950 to 2500 CE, following future greenhouse-gas emission scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5. Animations show the time-evolution of ice sheet thickness (m), oceanic melt rates (m a-1) driven by NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures, and surface melt-water production (m a-1) driven by our atmospheric RCM. Surface ice speeds (m a-1) illustrate the evolution of ice streams during ice-sheet retreat in the RCP8.5 scenario. The simulations in the videos use default model parameters and correspond to the simulations shown in Figure 4. (MOV 477 kb)
RCP4.5 surface melt-water production (m a-1) from 1950 to 2500 CE
This video shows various aspects of our ice-sheet simulations from 1950 to 2500 CE, following future greenhouse-gas emission scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5. Animations show the time-evolution of ice sheet thickness (m), oceanic melt rates (m a-1) driven by NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures, and surface melt-water production (m a-1) driven by our atmospheric RCM. Surface ice speeds (m a-1) illustrate the evolution of ice streams during ice-sheet retreat in the RCP8.5 scenario. The simulations in the videos use default model parameters and correspond to the simulations shown in Figure 4. (MOV 594 kb)
RCP8.5 surface melt-water production (m a-1) from 1950 to 2500 CE
This video shows various aspects of our ice-sheet simulations from 1950 to 2500 CE, following future greenhouse-gas emission scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5. Animations show the time-evolution of ice sheet thickness (m), oceanic melt rates (m a-1) driven by NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures, and surface melt-water production (m a-1) driven by our atmospheric RCM. Surface ice speeds (m a-1) illustrate the evolution of ice streams during ice-sheet retreat in the RCP8.5 scenario. The simulations in the videos use default model parameters and correspond to the simulations shown in Figure 4. (MOV 778 kb)
RCP8.5 ice-surface speeds (norm of ice-surface velocities (m a-1)) from 1950 to 2500 CE
This video shows various aspects of our ice-sheet simulations from 1950 to 2500 CE, following future greenhouse-gas emission scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5. Animations show the time-evolution of ice sheet thickness (m), oceanic melt rates (m a-1) driven by NCAR CCSM4 ocean temperatures, and surface melt-water production (m a-1) driven by our atmospheric RCM. Surface ice speeds (m a-1) illustrate the evolution of ice streams during ice-sheet retreat in the RCP8.5 scenario. The simulations in the videos use default model parameters and correspond to the simulations shown in Figure 4. (MOV 918 kb)
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DeConto, R., Pollard, D. Contribution of Antarctica to past and future sea-level rise. Nature 531, 591–597 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature17145
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature17145
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