Myrto Georgakopoulou

This article aims to summarise the results of three periods of fieldwork carried out at Keros in the Cyclades since 2006. These are the Cambridge Keros Project of 2006–2008, the Keros Island Survey of 2012–2013, and the Keros-Naxos Seaways Project of 2015–2018. Taken together, these form a coherent, large-scale project that aimed to study a maritime landscape in some depth, putting the Kavos and Dhaskalio sites in a broader context, while through excavation understanding in great detail the formation, use and abandonment of the sanctuary site on Kavos and the large built-up area on Dhaskalio.

The Antikythera Mechanism, an ancient Greek astronomical calculator, has challenged researchers since its discovery in 1901. Now split into 82 fragments, only a third of the original survives, including 30 corroded bronze gearwheels. Microfocus X-ray Computed Tomography (X-ray CT) in 2005 decoded the structure of the rear of the machine but the front remained largely unresolved. X-ray CT also revealed inscriptions describing the motions of the Sun, Moon and all five planets known in antiquity and how they were displayed at the front as an ancient Greek Cosmos. Inscriptions specifying complex planetary periods forced new thinking on the mechanization of this Cosmos, but no previous reconstruction has come close to matching the data. Our discoveries lead to a new model, satisfying and explaining the evidence. Solving this complex 3D puzzle reveals a creation of genius-combining cycles from Babylonian astronomy, mathematics from Plato's Academy and ancient Greek astronomical theories. The Antikythera Mechanism is a cultural treasure that has engrossed scholars across many disciplines. It was a mechanical computer of bronze gears that used groundbreaking technology to make astronomical predictions , by mechanizing astronomical cycles and theories 1-9. The major surviving fragments of the Antikythera Mechanism are labelled A-G and the minor fragments 1-75 7. They are partial, damaged, corroded and covered in accretions (Supplementary Fig. S1). Nevertheless, they are rich in evidence at the millimetre level-with fine details of mechanical components and thousands of tiny text characters, buried inside the fragments and unread for more than 2,000 years 7. Fragment A contains 27 of the surviving 30 gears, with a single gear in each of Fragments B, C and D 2,5,7,10. The fragments are a 3D puzzle of great complexity. In 2005 Microfocus X-ray Computed Tomography (X-ray CT) and Polynomial Texture Mapping (PTM) of the Mechanism's 82 fragments 7 added substantial data. This led to a solution to the back of the machine 4,7-9 , with the discovery of eclipse prediction and the mechanization of the lunar anomaly 7 (Supplementary Fig. S20). The front remained deeply controversial due to loss of physical evidence. Many unsuccessful attempts have been made to reconcile the evidence with a display of the ancient Greek Cosmos of Sun, Moon and all five planets known in antiquity. In 1905-06, remarkable research notes by Rehm 1 described Mein Planetarium, with a ring display for the planets that anticipates the model we present here-but mechanically completely wrong due to his lack of data (Supplementary Fig. S17). In the classic, Gears from the Greeks 2 , Price suggested lost gearing that calculated planetary motions, but made no attempt at a reconstruction. Then Wright built the first workable system at the front that calculated planetary motions and periods, with a coaxial pointer display of the Cosmos, proving its mechanical feasibility 3 (Supplementary Fig. S18). Later attempts by Freeth and Jones 9 (Supplementary Fig. S19), and independently by Carman, Thorndike, and Evans 11 , simplified the gearing but were limited to basic periods for the planets. Most previous reconstructions used pointers for the planetary displays, giving serious parallax problems 3,9 and poorly reflecting the description in the inscriptions-see section on Inscriptional Evidence. None of these models (Supplementary Discussion S6) are at all compatible with all the currently known data. Our challenge was to create a new model to match all the surviving evidence. Features on the Main Drive Wheel indicate that it calculated planetary motions with a complex epicyclic system (gears mounted on other gears), but its design remained a mystery. The tomography revealed a wealth of unexpected clues in the inscriptions , describing an ancient Greek Cosmos 9 at the front, but attempts to solve the gearing system failed to match OPEN 1

The study and preservation of cultural heritage is a multidisciplinary field where Materials Science and Corrosion Science have a very significant role to play. This chapter discusses how materials and corrosion scientists can follow a career in cultural heritage. It highlights the particular challenges that these disciplines encounter in the study and preservation of cultural heritage materials and the exciting career paths offered in museums, monuments, and relevant academic and research institutions. The applications for science and engineering skills to cultural materials are diverse, including the reverse engineering necessary to reconstruct ancient technologies used for materials production, the examination and condition assessment of often complex finds and structures, and the development of innovative treatment methods for their protection and conservation for future generations. Within this range of
challenges and materials, numerous career paths are available that lead to specialisations within the sub-fields of archaeological science and conservation science.

TL dating of archaeometallurgical kiln remains provides information about the chronological period of the corresponding activities. Due to the high temperature this material
has usually been subjected to, changes in the TL sensitivity of the quartz grains and also indications of mineralogical alterations, can be present. The study provides absolute ages for kiln assemblages from two prehistoric sites on the island of Seriphos (Cyclades, Greece). Additionally, as the study highlights sources of potential errors, a methodological approach for luminescence dating of similar material is presented.

Evidence for early copper production on Thassos dating to the Early Bronze Age derives from Limenaria and Aghios Antonios. Both sites are situated at the SW part of the island, where most of the Thassian Cu-ore outcrops also occur while the local treatment of such ores is corroborated by the analysed smelting slags and other relevant archaeometallurgical residues. A recent experimental simulation was carried out in order to approach questions regarding copper ore reduction in a northern Aegean context. For the duration of the smelt a temperature of 1220 °C in average was maintained for about 90 minutes during which period large pieces of furnace slag formed near the tuyère openings. Analysis of the experimental slag has shown significant microstructural similarities with the archaeological slag, although the chemical and mineralogical composition of the major phases exhibits some noticeable differences. By attempting an assessment of the conditions prevalent during the experimental smelt we pursue an evaluation of the copper reduction performance on EBA Thassos. Furthermore, we initiate a technological comparison for investigating any recognizable links and differences in early copper production between Thassos and the southern Aegean islands.

During the Late Bronze Age, Cyprus is widely recognized as the main copper producer in the eastern Mediterranean (e.g. Muhly and Kassianidou 2012: 129-34; O’Brien 2014), and still considered a prolific copper producer in the Roman period (e.g. Pliny, Naturalis Historia 34, 2 and 4; Kassianidou 2003; 2012a; Georgakopoulou and Kassianidou 2013). Little, however, is known about copper production during the 1st millennium BC, despite its unquestionable importance (Kassianidou 2012b; 2016). This chapter offers a comprehensive study of the chaîne opératoire of copper smelting technology in this period as practiced at Almyras, the only fully excavated Iron Age smelting workshop known so far in Cyprus.
The metallurgical remains presented in this chapter show that the entire production sequence from the smelting of sulphidic ore to metal was carried out at the Almyras workshop. According to the archaeological evidence available, it was a small-scale copper production site where no evidence for metal refining or manufacture of finished objects has been documented; raw impure copper seems to be the final product of the metallurgical process carried out at Almyras.

Five finds from Ambelikou Aletri, identified originally as metallurgical slags or ores, were sampled in 2001 at the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia. The proximity of the excavated areas to mine shafts with contemporary pottery has been taken as evidence that the choice of location for the settlement at Aletri was largely based on the presence of ores and that its inhabitants were involved in mining activities. The presence of relevant ‘ore’fragments, that is rocks identified as being rich in transition metal (hydr)oxides, further supports this association, although, for reasons outlined in the paper, it is unclear whether these were used in metallurgy and even whether they were deliberately brought into the settlement. The mould and crucible, however, provide secure evidence for metalworking activities at Ambelikou Aletri, while the mining evidence also appears robust. The evidence for the intermediate smelting stage is at present less secure and not directly supported by the analysed samples discussed here.

This paper discusses an archaeology of ceramic craft and artisans in the sixteenth–seventeenth centuries Belgrade and
problematises its relation to historical models of urban production in the Ottoman Empire. The study focuses on five common
wares, representative of the Middle Danube region, found in well-defined consumption contexts of Belgrade’s intra and extra
muros settlements. The production technology of these wares, including ceramic bodies, slips, and glazes, was studied with
ceramic petrography and chemical analysis, and the results were interpreted using the chaîne opératoire conceptual framework.
The petrographic study was also used for a preliminary provenance determination of raw materials. It is proposed that
Monochrome Glazed Ware, Slip-Painted Ware, and Domestic Unglazed Ware were locally made in Belgrade following the
Ottoman conquest in 1521. The emergence of this production coincides with the abrupt cultural change in the Middle Danube
region marked by migrations and new socio-economic conditions initiated by the Ottomans. Traits of the local production are
compared to the existing corpus of knowledge on the urban craftsmanship and guilds formulated in Ottoman historiography for
the purpose of developing a cross-disciplinary approach to crafts and artisans in the Ottoman Empire.

This paper discusses a micro-scale study of the technology, provenance and organisation of ceramic production in Belgrade during the 14th-15th centuries (the Late Medieval period). The study is situated in the context of the Middle Danube frontier and examines the impact of long-term military pressure on local craftsmanship in Bel-grade. The production is reconstructed by methods of petrographic and chemical analyses of ceramics consumed in two households of Belgrade's intra and extra muros settlements. The results indicate that two distinct technological traditions flourished in Belgrade during the 14th and 15th century respectively, each attached to a different community of practice. The production was diversified in the 15th century in a way that suggests that the distribution networks of local workshops were aimed at different social groups. It is suggested that this mode of craft organisation developed as a consequence of social divisions and military events on the frontier.

In this paper, a science-based study of ceramic wares discovered in the Old Doha Rescue Excavations (ODRE) is presented. The ODRE project, run by Qatar Museums and UCL Qatar, discovered a stratigraphic sequence running from the earliest occupation of Doha in the early nineteenth century until the most recent archaeological levels. A strategic selection of ceramic wares from this sequence was studied to shed light on the technological background and provenance of the pottery utilized in Doha between the late nineteenth and the mid-twentieth century. The petrographic study of these wares has provided insight into
their mineralogical and petrological composition and their textural characteristics. The textural elements have been used to understand the technology of production of the ceramics, which come from different places around the Gulf. The identification
of components has moved us a step closer to the location of places of production by matching compositions and geological backgrounds. The study of glazes with hhXRF, SEM-EDS, and optical microscopy has given us further insight on technological
processes in the application of glaze. Finally, a comparison between the macroscopic and microscopic analyses carried out has been produced to shed some light on the inherent difficulties associated with the identification of wares in Gulf ceramics.

In this paper, the monochrome glazed Bahlā Ware from al-Ain dated between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries (Late Islamic Arabian Period) has been analysed aiming to reconstruct the production technology of the ceramic fabrics and glazes. The results of the petrographic and chemical analyses suggest a unique technological tradition embedded in the culture of Late Islamic Arabia. This tradition incorporates the production of a lead-barium glaze coated over a single type of ceramic fabric that spans for nearly three centuries. Since this is the first evidence for the production of a lead-barium glaze in the Islamic World, the origins of this technology remain uncertain, but the results of the ceramic petrography identify the Omani Peninsula as the most likely source for the ceramic fabric. During the economic peak of al-Ain in the eighteenth century, this tradition shows signs of technological diversity visible in the appearance of new fabrics and glazes. Considering the wide distribution of Bahlā Ware in the Western Indian Ocean, understanding of the production technology and provenance of al-Ain's ceramics has important implications for archaeological interpretation.

A B S T R A C T The performance of WD-XRF and NAA setups has been examined by comparing compositional data obtained by the two methods on 36 clay samples collected in Central and Eastern Crete. While the two methods determine a different range of elements – 26 are determined by WD-XRF, 27 by NAA, of which 15 are measured with both methods – with different precisions, a similar grouping, and level of resolution when examining the same set of clays could be achieved using WD-XRF data in comparison with NAA data. These results highlight the WD-XRF routine's potential of discrimination even in regions which have proved to be challenging for provenance studies in the past.

This article advocates a holistic approach to consumption studies in the urban centers of the Middle Danube region during the Ottoman period (16-17th century) using the example of Iznik Ware from the Belgrade Fortress. Combined results of archaeological and scientific research provide insight into regional consumption patterns, which is important for the understanding of cultural variability across the Ottoman Empire. This work emphasizes the importance of contextualized studies of archaeological ceramics in the development of post-medieval archaeology.

Elemental analysis of ancient ceramics is primarily used in provenance research, where defined compositional groups are attributed to particular raw materials sources or production locations. Requirements in data quality and analytical performance are high, as is the need for clear and reproducible methodologies and the availability of information on the above to ensure interlaboratory comparability and long-term data validity. This paper outlines the measurement parameters of a dedicated calibration setup for the analysis of ancient ceramics using wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. The specimens are prepared as concentrated glass beads, allowing the measurement of 26 elements from a single sample, thus minimising sample size requirements. Certified and non-commercial standards are used to evaluate the performance of the method in terms of detection limits, precision, repeatability and accuracy. The materials used cover a range of compositions in line with the matrix variability encountered in archaeological ceramics. The data confirm the high standard of the method and highlight specific limitations. An initial assessment of comparability with other setups used in ceramic analyses, primarily neutron activation analysis, is given through a discussion of performance on commonly analysed materials. The advantages of the proposed method include excellent analytical performance, analysis of a large suite of elements including all major, minor and a good range of traces, relatively small sample sizes and preparation of samples that can be stored and reanalysed. Copyright

Eretria, an important ancient Greek polis with a rich Bronze Age past, was among the first colonial and commercial powers in the ancient world that founded already in the 8th c. BC a number of colonies and trading posts across the Aegean and the Mediterranean. In the context of a diachronic investigation of Eretrian pottery production and supply from the Early Bronze Age to the Roman period, a large number of pottery samples and geological materials have been analysed. The current article summarises the results of the analyses of the Bronze Age pottery from the site, comprising 151 pottery samples carefully selected from stratified deposits, which have been examined through petrographic and chemical (WD-XRF) analyses and compared to geological materials and experimental ceramic briquettes. Overall, the current evidence for local pottery production indicates that during the third and the early second millennia BC no dramatic change occurred in the exploitation of raw materials in Eretria for pottery production, in spite of conspicuous stylistic and technological transformations. The first possible change in raw material sources, which occurs in the Middle Helladic period and affects coarse wares only, corresponds with a major break in the site occupation. Unlike local products, most imported fabrics do not show continuity through time, indicating changes in the direction of external relationships in Eretria.

The Aristotle University of Thessaloniki excavation
at Karabournaki (2007 and 2008) explored the fill
of two neighboring trenches that dates to the 7th-6th c.
BC. In the research framework of the archaeometallurgical
project of the École Française d’Athènes and
the Université de Lille (UMR 8164 Halma, project HeMEN) in collaboration with the Fitch Laboratory-British
School at Athens and the Laboratory of UCL-Qatar
we conducted investigation on metallurgical material
from Karabournaki.
The investigated material consists in particular of
metallurgical waste (iron working slags, other iron
waste, slag and other copper working waste) and a
cooking vessel which is used for metallurgical operations.
The material was recorded in its entirety in the
HeMEN database. The recording was followed by a
macroscopic study which allowed the classification and
identification of the objects. The macroscopic and
chemical investigation that followed showed that the
iron assemblage presents both variety and consistency.
Iron smithing slags rather indicate long operations and
voluminous productions. On the other hand, the vessel,
which is a quenching tub, must have been used for
objects of relatively small size. Likewise, copper working
waste indicates polyvalence, possibly a polymetallurgical
technical context. Finally the finding of evidence on the processing of other materials (amber? glass?), apart from metals supports the heterogeneous character of the find. Yet the results so far show that during this highly technical, diverse metallurgical activities were taking place at Karabournaki regardless of whether they were practiced in one or more workshops.

The study of the iron smith’s craft and its productive
process has attracted little interest in the context of
Ancient Greece. Although many pioneering studies were
conducted, both on literary evidence and limited archaeological
data, the rest remain practically unknown. The
earliest iron objects in the Aegean appear in the 2nd millennium,
but the beginnings of this metallurgical production
raises many questions, both in terms of chronology
and of the material and cultural conditions of his development.
Numerous regions across the Aegean are rich in
raw materials, but the presence of archaeometallurgical
remains suggests two pioneering areas: firstly the northern
Aegean, especially Thasos, and secondly the Peloponnese
(Laconia, Argolid, etc.). The major role of Sparta seems to
be confirmed by the existing archaeometallurgical studies,
but the question of exchanges in raw materials remains
crucial. We hope that our concise synopsis, on the basis
of the existing data, would stimulate the development of
further research.
La recherche sur la Grèce ancienne s’est peu préoccupée
de l’artisanat du fer et de ses procédés de production.
Même si plusieurs études pionnières ont été réalisées,
aussi bien sur les textes que sur des données archéologiques
limitées, tout reste pratiquement à faire. Si les objets en fer
apparaissent dans l’Égée dès le IIe millénaire, les débuts de
la métallurgie du fer posent de nombreuses questions, tant
pour leur date que pour les conditions matérielles et culturelles
de son évolution. De nombreuses régions de Grèce
sont riches en matières premières mais les vestiges archéométallurgiques
montrent pour l’instant deux grandes
zones pionnières : d’une part le Nord de l’Égée, surtout
Thasos, et, d’autre part, le Péloponnèse (Laconie, Argolide
etc.). Le rôle majeur du fer laconien semble confirmé par
l’archéométallurgie, tandis que la question des échanges
de matières premières reste cruciale. Nous espérons qu’un
premier tableau, à partir des éléments connus par les travaux
en cours, pourra stimuler le développement de nouvelles
recherches.

Myanmar has been notably underrepresented in re-
cent studies of archaeometallurgy in Southeast Asia, despite
its richness in both mineral and cultural resources and its po-
tentially central role in long-distance exchange networks
linking India, China and peninsular neighbours. Here, we
present original analytical data on copper-base artefacts from
several Bronze Age and Iron Age sites in Myanmar. Observed
microstructures range from as-cast, worked, to fully annealed;
compositions include leaded copper, low-tin to high-tin
bronzes, and arsenical copper/bronze. Lead isotope analyses
indicate that the metal originates from different geological
sources, including several that match the lead isotope signa-
tures of known prehistoric copper mines in Thailand and Laos.
These archaeometallurgical data, including evidence for sec-
ondary copper-base production, more than double those
currently available for Myanmar and document the presence
of multiple local alloying and working traditions, perhaps
chronologically differentiated, as well as identifying possible
links to primary mineral sources across the region. Overall,
this adds significant new information to the emerging picture
of Southeast Asian prehistoric metallurgy at the crossroads of
several major ancient cultures.