Research Methods

Dr. Aasma Yousaf

Assistant Professor
Consultant Clinical
Psychologist
Centre for Clinical
Psychology
University of the Punjab,
Lahore
 Introduction

 Scientific Methods
 Goals of Scientific Method
 Need of Research
 Types of Research
 Sampling Techniques
 Sample Description
 Ethical Issues in Conducting Research
 Descriptive Methods
 Observation
 Survey research
Thinking Like a Researcher

What should I study?

How can I study?
Why should I study?
 Scientific Methods
Scientific and Everyday Approaches to
Knowledge
Approaches Non scientific Scientific
General Approach Intuitive, uncritical, accepting Empirical, skeptical, critical
and Attitude

Observation Casual, uncontrolled Systematic, controlled

Reporting Subjective, biased Objective, unbiased

Concepts Ambiguous, with surplus Clear definitions, operational

meanings specificity
Instruments Inaccurate, imprecise Accurate, precise

Measurement Not valid or reliable, usable Valid and reliable

Hypotheses Untestable, directional, non Testable

directional
(Oxford University, 2025; Shaughnessy, Zechmeister, Zechmeister, 20
Goals of the Scientific Method
Goals Description
Description Researchers define, classify, catalogue, or
categorize events and relationships to describe
mental processes and behavior.

Prediction When researchers identify correlations among

variables they are able to predict processes and
behavior.

Explanation/Understanding Researchers understand a phenomenon when

they can identify the cause.

Application/Change/ Psychologists apply their knowledge and

Control research methods to change people’s lives for
the better.
 Need of Research

 To evaluate a theory
 To satisfy curiosity
 To demonstrate a new technique
 To demonstrate a behavioral phenomena
 To
investigate a conditions influencing behavioral
phenomena
 Approaches/Types of Research
Descriptive V Explanatory
To accurately describe the characteristics of a s To understand the underlying reasons and
phenomenon, group, or individual without manipulating relationships behind a phenomenon. Correlational
variables. Surveys, case studies, naturalistic research, experimental studies, and meta-analyses.
observation, and archival research.
Quantitative v Qualitative
Testing hypotheses, measuring variables, and s Exploring and understanding complex human
identifying statistical relationships. Surveys, experiences, perspectives, and meanings.
experiments, observations, and other methods that Interviews, focus groups, observations, textual
generate numerical data analysis, and other methods that generate non-
numerical data
Basic V Applied
To expand understanding of the human mind and s To address specific problems and find practical
behavior. It's driven by curiosity and a desire to solutions. It's motivated by the need to improve
understand fundamental processes. Controlled real-world situations. Real-world settings. Develop
environments. Structure of molecules new drug to treat. What and How
Why and How
Cross-sectional V Longitudinal
Data is collected from different groups of participants s Data is collected from the same group of
at the same time, allowing researchers to compare participants multiple times over a period, allowing
groups based on age, gender, or other characteristics. researchers to track changes and developments.
Field V Laboratory
Conducted in natural settings, such as schools, s Conducted in a controlled environment, often a lab,
 Sampling Strategy
Basic Concepts

 Population: the set of all cases of interest

 Sample: the subset of the population actually drawn from the
sampling frame.
 Representative sample: The ability to generalize from a sample to
the population
 Selection bias: When the procedures used to select the sample
result in the overrepresentation of some segment of the population
or, conversely, in the exclusion or underrepresentation of a
significant segment.
 Approaches to Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling Probability Sampling
No guarantee that each All registered students
element has some chance (elements) have an equal
of being included and no chance of being included in
way to estimate the the sample. Probability
probability of each sampling is far superior to
element’s being included in nonprobability sampling in
the sample. ensuring that selected
samples represent the
1. Convenience sampling population.
2. Quota 1. Simple Random sampling
3. Purposive 2. Systematic random
4. Snowball sampling
3. Stratified random
sampling
4. Multistage sampling
Simple Random Systematic random
sampling sampling

Ensures each element A pre-determined

has an equal chance of interval to select
being selected. elements, ensuring they
A random number are evenly distributed
generator or a lottery within the population.
system is often used to Easy to implement and
select elements from a can be used when a
list of the entire complete list of the
population. population is not readily
available.
Selecting every 20th
person on a list, starting
at a randomly chosen
position.
Stratified Random Cluster Sampling
Sampling
divides the population into divides the population into
homogeneous subgroups heterogeneous subgroups
(strata) based on shared (clusters), then randomly
characteristics, then selects entire clusters and
randomly selects elements includes all members
from each stratum. within those clusters.
Reduces sampling error Cost-effective and efficient,
and increases precision, as especially for large or
variability within each geographically dispersed
stratum is minimized. populations.
Ensures that important Practical for situations
subgroups are properly where a complete list of
represented. the population is not
available.
When want to study a large,
geographically dispersed population
Multistage Sampling
 A probability sampling technique where a
population is divided into stages, and samples are
drawn at each stage.
 These clusters can be anything from regions to
neighborhoods to households.
 At each stage, random samples are drawn from the
selected clusters. This can involve simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, or other probability
sampling methods
 The clusters are often nested within each other,
creating a hierarchical structure
 It can be more cost-effective than single-stage
sampling, especially for large populations.
 Non Probability Sampling
Convenient Sampling
 Participants are selected based on their proximity,
availability, or willingness to participate
 It's a quick and inexpensive way to gather data
 Due to the non-random selection, the sample may
not accurately represent the broader population
 It's well-suited for preliminary studies, pilot projects,
or when exploring new ideas.
Quota Sampling
 Researchers set quotas for each subgroup based on their
estimated proportions in the population.
 The goal is to ensure the sample reflects the proportions of
different groups in the population
 Because participants are not selected randomly, quota
sampling can introduce bias

Proportional quota sampling: Used when the population

size is known, allowing for accurate quota determination
Non-proportional quota sampling: Used when the
population size is unknown or the focus is on specific
subgroups rather than maintaining population proportions
Purposive Sampling

 Selecting individuals that represent the typical or

average experience of the phenomenon
 Selecting individuals that are at the extremes of a
phenomenon, such as those who have had
exceptionally positive or negative experiences.
 Selecting a diverse range of cases to capture the full
spectrum of experiences or perspectives related to
the research question.
 Helps researchers focus on the most relevant cases,
making the most of limited resources
Snowball Sampling
 Method where existing participants help recruit
future participants, creating a chain-like effect. It's
often used when a population is hard to reach or
hidden, making it difficult to find initial participants
through traditional methods such as individuals with
rare conditions, those engaging in sensitive
activities, or members of marginalized groups
 The sample "snowballs" as existing participants
refer others they know, expanding the sample size
 The process begins with a small number of initial
participants, who are chosen based on their
relevance to the study.
 Ethics in Research

 Researcher must accept the responsibility to behave ethically

toward those who will be affected by your research
 Research ethics concerns the responsibility of researchers to be
honest and respectful to all individuals who may be affected by
their research studies or their reports of the studies’ results.
 Ethical issues must be considered at each step in the
research process
 What measurement techniques may be used for certain individuals
 How researchers select individuals to participate in studies
 Which research strategies and designs may be used with certain populations
and behaviors.
 How studies may be carried out with individuals
 How results are reported
American Psychological Association (APA) Guideline
 1) No harm
The researcher is obligated to protect participants from physical or psychological harm
psychological harm – participants may feel increased anxiety, anger, lower self-esteem especially in
situations where they feel that they have been cheated or insulted
any risk of harm must be justified
participants must be informed of any potential risks
 2) Informed consent
 human participants should be given complete information about the research and their role in it
 they should understand the information and then voluntarily decide whether or not to
participate
 Information – if not possible to provide the subject with information about the purpose of
the study we can explain to him at least exactly what will be done. (participant information
sheet)
 Understanding – some participants may not be competent to understand the research
(e.g. children), therefore, it is necessary to provide the information to a parent or a guardian
 Voluntary participation – participants decide to participate of their own free will (no
obligation because of a teacher or a professor asked them to do so)
(1) The purpose of the research, duration, and procedures
(2) Their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once
participation has begun
(3) The foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing
(4) Reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their
willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects
(5) Any prospective research benefits
(6) Limits of confidentiality
(7) Incentives for participation
(8)Whom to contact for questions about the research and research participants’
rights. They provide opportunity for the prospective participants to ask
questions and receive answers.
Informed Consent of Therapy Based Research
 (1) the experimental nature of the treatment
 (2) the services that will or will not be available to the control group(s) if appropriate;
 the means by which assignment to treatment and control groups will be made;
 available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate in the
research or wishes to withdraw once a study has begun; and
 compensation for or monetary costs of participating including, if appropriate, whether
reimbursement from the participant or a third-party pay or will be sought.
 Psychologists obtain informed consent from research participants prior to recording their
voices or images for data collection unless
 (1) the research consists solely of naturalistic observations in public places, and it is not
anticipated that the recording will be used in a manner that could cause personal
identification or harm, or
 (2) the research design includes deception, and consent for the use of the recording is
obtained during debriefing.
Deception
 Deception is used when informed consent cannot be obtain before the study
 to obtain unbiased results researchers must sometimes use deception because participants may adjust
their own levels of performance in an attempt to satisfy the experimenter
 Subject deception is typically used to promote scientific validity, with subjects provided
with false or incomplete information about the research in order to obtain unbiased data
with respect to the subjects’ attitudes and behavior when complete or truthful disclosure
is expected to produce biased results.
 While deception can be an effective tool for the conduct of research, it also raises
ethical concerns with subject autonomy and respect for persons, as well as regulatory
issues with informed consent requirements.
 Types of Deception
 Passive deception (or omission) is the withholding or omitting of information (researcher
intentionally does not tell participants some information about the study)
 Active deception (or commission) is the presenting of misinformation about the study to participants
(misleading participants about the specific purpose of the study).
Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Subjects in Research

 The first ethical question is whether nonhuman subjects should

be used at all in behavioral research
 Animals must be treated humanely, qualified individuals must
conduct research, the research must be justified and the
researcher has a responsibility to minimize discomfort or harm
 Institutions that conduct research with animals have an animal
research review board called the Institutional Animal Care and
Use Committee (IACUC)
 Committee consists of a veterinarian, at least one scientist experience in
animal research and a one member of public with no affiliation with the
institution.
 E.g, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences (UVAS) in Lahore
 Ethical issues and scientific integrity
 two ethical issues relevant to the written reports of the
research study
 Fraud/ Fabrication of Data
 To deceive and misrepresent the data
 Fraud needs to be distinguished from an error
 Plagiarism
 Isthe representation of someone else’s ideas or words as one’s own, it is
unethical!!!
 Reference citations must be included in your paper whenever someone else’s
ideas or work has influenced your thinking and writing
 Whenever you use direct quotations or even paraphrase someone else’s work,
you need to give them credit
 Include a complete list of references at the end of the paper
 If in doubt about whether a citation is necessary, cite the source anyway
Common Mistakes in Designing a Synopsis

Study and Year Statistics of common

Authors mistakes
2007 Unexplained title 71%
Unclear introduction 49%
Unsatisfactory sampling 53%
Overall method 51%
Inadequate literature 50%
MacDonald 2014 Unclear introduction
Unsatisfactory sampling
Inadequate literature
Ali et al 2019 Unclear introduction 53%
Wrong hypothesis 62%
Relevant statistics 67%
Conception of the Research Idea
The researcher should be aware of the following:
 What has already been done and what is already known in the area
 How the literature search and assessment has been performed
 Justification for the study
 The author’s argument concerning the significance of the study.
 Understanding that not all studies result in an Immediate product
 The researcher’s awareness of current knowledge in the field.
 A broad and complex problem is unlikely to be solvable or manageable and
is likely to be deemed unethical to conduct.
 The theoretical backgrounds of the study
 The researcher’s experience permit a prediction of outcomes

(Annersten & Wredling, 2006; Shreffler & Huecker, 2023; Aryal, 2023; Abdullah,
2023)
 Steps of Writing Proposal
1.Introduction
 Background
 Research Objectives
 Research Questions/Hypothesis
 Significance of the Study
2. Literature Review
 Presenting the related literature of the study
3. Methodology
 Research Design
 Sampling Strategy and Sample of the study (inclusion and exclusion
criteria)
 Operational Definitions of the constructs
 Research Instruments
 Procedure: Data Collection Procedure and proposed analysis
 Ethical considerations
4. References
 Introduction
Background
 Understanding about the constructs
 Epidemiology of the variable/sample
 Theoretical basis of the variables/constructs

 Literature Review
 What is the literature
 What is a gap in literature

(Annersten & Wredling, 2006; Kearney, 2017; Smeden, 2022)

Research Objectives
 Short and clear
 Specific, achievable objectives
 Statement of a research hypothesis or specific model to be
tested is preferable
 The outcome variables should be clearly defined
 Complicated and numerous research objectives should be
avoided
 In exploratory research, conveniently phrased as answerable
Research
questions. Hypothesis
 Hypothesis relevant to the introduction and
literature
 Researchable and answerable
 Directional hypothesis
(Annersten & Wredling, 2006; Smeden, 2022)
Significance of the problem
 Why this research is important?
 How the proposed research will make a
contribution to existing knowledge
 Possible
applications or consequences of the
knowledge
 The expected generalizability of the research
 Research’s potential of improving the relevant
field and practice

(Annersten & Wredling, 2006; Smeden, 2022)

 Method

How the research objectives will be addressed:

 Study design
 Sampling plan/strategy
 Sample description (inclusion and exclusion criteria)
 Operational definition
 Measuring instruments
 Procedure: Data collection and analytical strategies

Kearney, 2017
 Ethical considerations

Ethical implications of the study should be described and how they will be
handled:

 A formal approval of the research

 The integrity of the study participant
 The risk to the research participants
 Information sheet
 Volunteer participation of participants
 Informed consent
Information
Sheet
Informed
Consent
Researcher Must Know About:
 Length of Proposal
(University of Sydney: 2000)
(Oxford University: 2500)
(University Sheffield: 1500-2000)
(University of Salford: 1500-2000)
 Timeframe
 Study personnel
 Facilities
 Budget

(Annersten & Wredling, 2006)

Thank You