Quantitative Research
Modeling
SESSION 9
BY
Dr. Mahpara Ahmed
Quantitative Analysis
Managing • Coding of
Questionnaire
the Data. s (Code book)
• Nominal,
Quantitative ordinal
interval
&
Measurement variables
.
Goodness
• Reliability;
of Validity
Measure
Simple • Description
;
statistics Dispersion
• T-Test
Hypothesi • ANOVA
s Testing • Correlation
• Regression
GIGO effect
Garbage In Garbage Out
Input
Processing
Output
POPULATION AND
SAMPLING
Target Population
• Entire set of units relevant
to the problem/phenomenon
being studied
• The target population is the
collection of elements or
objects that possess the
information sought by the
researcher and about which
inference are to be made.
How to identify target populations?
• Target populations may be concentrated or scattered
every unit of a target population must have at least one
similar characteristic
• Target populations with a high number of similar
characteristics are called homogenous, while those with
greater number of dissimilar attributes are considered
diverse
Population sampling
• Population sampling is the process of taking a subset of
subjects that is representative of the entire population.
• The sample must have sufficient size to justify statistical
analysis.
• Sampling is done usually because it is impossible to test
every single individual in the population.
• It is also done to save time, money and effort while
conducting the research.
Population sampling
• Still, every researcher must keep in mind that the ideal
scenario is to test all the individuals to obtain reliable,
valid and accurate results.
• If testing all the individuals is impossible, that is the
only time we rely on sampling techniques.
• Performing population sampling must be conducted
correctly since errors can lead to inaccurate and
misleading data.
Sample Size
• Sample size: relates to how many people to pick for
the study. How many people should be surveyed? The
question often asked is: How big a sample is necessary
for a good survey?
According to the law of large numbers, the larger the
sample size, the better the estimates, or
the larger the sample the closer the "true" value of the
population is approached.
Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling
• Simple random • Convenience
• Systematic random • Judgmental
• Stratified random • Quota
• Cluster • Snowball
• Multi-stage Cluster or
Double Sampling
Classification of Sampling Techniques
Sampling Techniques
Nonprobability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques
Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball
Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Other Sampling
Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Techniques
Probability Sampling
• Probability sampling is one in which each person in the
population has the same probability/chance of being
selected.
• A probability sampling method is any method of
sampling that utilizes some form of random selection.
• In order to have a random selection method, you must set
up some process or procedure that assures that the
different units in your population have equal probabilities
of being chosen.
Non probability sampling
• The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that
nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and
probability sampling does.
• Does that mean that nonprobability samples aren't representative of the
population? Not necessarily.
• But it does mean that nonprobability samples cannot depend upon the
rationale of probability theory.
• At least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability
that we have represented the population well.
• With nonprobability samples, we may or may not represent the
population well, and it will often be hard for us to know how well
we've done so.
• In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random sampling
methods over no probabilistic ones, and consider them to be more
accurate.
Types of probability Sampling are:
• Simple Random Sampling:
is a sampling scheme with the probability that any of the possible subsets
of the sample is equally likely to be the chosen sample. A way of
selecting the sample is by means of a table of random numbers. Once a
sampling frame is available, each person in the population is assigned a
number. After assigning a number any person from the given population
could be selected without defining any kind of order.
• Systematic sampling: (interval random sampling)
is a strategy which gives each element in the population the same chance
of being selected for the sample. We would proceed down the sampling
frame selecting for the sample every Kth person, starting with a person
randomly selected from among the first K persons and choosing
systematically form inclusion in the sample.
Stratified Random Sampling
• When populations vary, it is advantageous to sample each
subpopulation (stratum) independently.
• Stratification is the process of dividing members of the
population into homogeneous subgroups before sampling.
• The strata should be mutually exclusive: every element in the
population must be assigned to only one stratum.
• The strata should also be collectively exhaustive: no population
element can be excluded.
• Then random or systematic sampling is applied within each
stratum.
• Cluster sampling
• Cluster sampling is a sampling technique in which the entire population of interest
is divided into groups, or clusters, and a random sample of these clusters is
selected.
• Each cluster must be mutually exclusive and together the clusters must include the
entire population.
• After clusters are selected, all units within the clusters are selected.
• No units from non-selected clusters are included in the sample.
• This differs fromstratified sampling, in which some units are selected from each
group.
• When all the units within a cluster are selected, the technique is referred to as one-
stage cluster sampling.
• If a subset of units is selected randomly from each selected cluster, it is called two-
stage cluster sampling.
Types of No probability Sampling are:
Availability/Accidental/Convenience sampling:
is where the first available appropriate sample are used.
• Convenience samples are sample drawn at the convenience of the
researcher. According to most convenient location, time, etc
respondents are selected.
• Convenience sampling may misrepresent the population.
• A sampling procedure that leaves the selection of respondents totally to
the field researcher, with no quotas or qualifications imposed. It
consists of those units of the population that are easily accessible.
Purposive/Judgmental sampling:
is where the sample is selected on the basis of knowledge of the research
problem, to allow selection of "typical" persons for inclusion in the
sample.
• Judgment sampling is a form of non-probability sampling in which
the population elements are selected based on the judgment of the
researcher.
• In judgment sampling researcher uses his/ her own educated guess or
judgment to identify who will be in the sample.
Quota sampling:
begins with a matrix describing the characteristics of the target population. The goal is to select people to reflect
characteristics found in the population.
• The quota sample establishes a specific quota or percentage for various types of individuals to be
interviewed.
• The size of the quota are determined by the researchers belief for relative size of each class of respondent in
the population.
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental sampling. The first stage consists of
developing control categories, or quotas, of population elements. In the second stage, sample elements are
selected based on convenience or judgment.
Population Sample
composition composition
Characteristic Percentage Percentage Number
Male 48 48 480
Female 52 52 520
• Snowball sampling:
is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers to identify potential
subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate.
• Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited
to a very small subgroup of the population.
• This type of sampling technique works like chain referral.
• After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance from the subject to
help identify people with a similar trait of interest.
• Snowball sampling is commonly used when it is difficult to identify members of the
desired population. Make contact with one or two respondents in the population. Ask
these new respondents to identify further new respondents and so on. And this process of
obtaining data by initial respondent ,and then from referral to referral is called as snow
ball.
• The process of snowball sampling is much like asking your subjects to nominate another
person with the same trait as your next subject.
• The researcher then observes the nominated subjects and continues in the same way until
the obtaining sufficient number of subjects.
• For example, if obtaining subjects for a study that wants to observe a rare disease, the
researcher may opt to use snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain subjects.
• It is also possible that the patients with the same disease have a support group; being
able to observe one of the members as your initial subject will then lead you to more
subjects for the study.
THANK
YOU
