214445: Basics of Computer Network

(SE IT 2019 Course)

UNIT – 2
Data Communication

Prof. R. A. Patil , SKNCOE, Pune

Department of Information Technology,

Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Engineering,
Pune
 Text Book & Reference Book
UNIT – 2 Data Communication 06 Hours
 Signals: Characteristics of analog and digital waveforms used in data

transmission.
 Digital-to Digital: Encoding digital data into digital signals. Analog-to-Digital:

Converting analog signals to digital (e.g., PCM).

 Digital-to-Analog: Modulating digital data onto analog signals. Analog-to

Analog: Transforming analog signals (e.g., AM, FM).

 Transmission Modes: Communication directions, including simplex, half-duplex,
and full-duplex. Modulation: Methods to encode data onto carrier signals (e.g.,
amplitude, frequency, phase modulation).
 Multiplexing: Strategies like Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) and Time

Division Multiplexing (TDM) to share a medium.

 Transmission Media: Wired: Cables such as twisted pair, coaxial, and optical

fiber. Wireless: Radio waves, microwaves, and infrared.

 Switching Techniques: Circuit Switching: Dedicated path for communication.

Packet Switching: Data divided into packets for transmission. Datagram2

 Approach: Connectionless packet delivery. Virtual Circuit: Connection-oriented
packet routing.
 Reference Book:

1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communication and Networking, McGraw

Hill Education, ISBN: 978-1-25-906475-3, 5th Edition
 DATA
COMMUNICATIONS
• The term telecommunication means communication at
a distance.
• The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.
• Data communications are the exchange of data
between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.

3
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 To be transmitted, data must be first transformed to electromagnetic

signals. Why?
 Data may not be in form suitable for Transmission over the N/W.

 eg. A photograph on paper.

 Data can be analog or digital

 Signals also ,can be analog or digital.

4
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 analog data refers to information that is continuous states / values; and an

infinite number of values in a range
 digital data refers to information that has discrete states / values. digital
data can have only a limited number of values.
 Can you give some examples of analog and digital data?
 Eg of analog data : human voice,temperature,
 Eg of digital data : dig watch, data in PC, traffic lights

5
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 Signals are also classified as Periodic or non periodic

 Periodic: signal which repeats its pattern after fixed time periods
x(t) = x ( t +T ) where T is period
 Identify whether following waveforms are periodic , non
periodic , analog or digital :

6
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 Simplest periodic signal is a sine wave ( and

cosine)

 Equation : Vi = Vm sin( ωt + θ ) = Vm sin( 2πf t +

θ)
 Vi = instantaneous amplitude at a given time
 Vm= maximum/peak amplitude
 ω = angular speed 2
 θ = initial phase 0
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

Frequency :
 Is the rate of repetition . It is measured in cycles(repetitions)

per
second or Hertz

Period :
 Is the time taken by one cycle. Measured in

seconds
 Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.

8
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero

eg The voltage of a battery is a constant; this constant value can be
considered a sine wave with frequency zero.

If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is
infinite. eg lightning

Q. What is frequency of given signal?

2.25 Hz

9
 Basics of Signal (Analog and
Digital)

EX:1] The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz (50 Hz in Europe). The
period of this sine

EX:2] The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in hertz?

EX:3] Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds

10
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different
amplitudes

11
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase, but

different
frequencies

12
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to

time 0.
 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency, but
different phases:

13
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

Wavelength
is distance travelled by signal in its one period time.
 Wavelength depends on freq and medium, whereas Frequency is

independent of medium.
 λ= C/ f where c is speed of light 3*108 m/s
 Unit of Wavelength is meter

14
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

Time domain and frequency domain

 Signal can be plotted in either Time or frequency domain for analysis purpose.
 Time domain : it is graph of amplitude Versus time
 It shows amplitude at any given time , shape , fundamental frequency ( if
any) & periodicity.

 But it can’t show frequencies present in a composite signal

15
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)
 Frequency domain: It is a graph of amplitude Vs frequency
 A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single
C
spike in the frequency domain. l
 i amplitudes of each freq. but does not
FD is easy to plot and convey peak
c
show instantaneous phase andkamplitude.

t
o

a
d Click to add text
d

t
e
x
t

16
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are

dealing with more than one sine wave. For example, Figure shows
three sine waves, each with different amplitude and frequency. All
can be represented by three spikes in the frequency domain.

17
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 A single-frequency sine wave is not in

useful
communications (Since it carries no information); we data
need to
send a composite signal, a combination of many simple sine
waves.

 According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a

combination of simple sine waves with different frequencies,
amplitudes, and phases.( Fourier transform & Fourier series)

18
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 A composite periodic signal

 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and

frequency domains . it contains fundamental frequency and
harmonics

19
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series

of
signals with discrete frequencies;

 if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives

a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.

20
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic digital

signals

21
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between

the highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.

22
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 We have seen that data can be represented by an analog signal, it

can also be represented by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can
be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.

23
 Basics of Signal
(Analog and Digital)

 More bits can be sent , if we use more signal

levels

What is the relation between number of signal levels and

number of bits38
sent per level?
Figure Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass
channel

25
 Digital – To- Digital Conversion

The conversion involves three techniques: line coding,

block coding, and scrambling. Line coding is always
needed; block coding and scrambling may or may not be
needed.

Topics discussed in this section:

Line Coding
Line Coding Schèmes
Block Coding
Scrambling
26
 Line Coding and Decoding

• Line coding is the process of converting digital data to

digital signals.
• Digital Data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio,
or video, are stored in computer memory as sequences of bits .
• Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.
• At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the
receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding the
digital
signal.

27
 Characteristics of Line Coding
Schemes

1. Signal Element vs Data Element

2. Data Rate vs Signal Rate
3. Base line Wandering
4. DC Components
5. Self Synchronization
6. Built in Error Detection
7. Immunity to Noise and Interference
8. Complexity

28
 Signal Element versus Data
Element

• In data communications, our goal is to send data elements.

• A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of
information: this is the bit.
• In digital data communications, a signal element carries
data
elements.
• A signal element is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal.
• In other words, data elements are what we need to send; signal
elements are what we can send.
• Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers.

29
 Signal Element versus Data
Element

Define a ratio r which is the number of data elements carried by each signal
elemen9t1.
 Data Rate versus Signal Rate

• The data rate (bit rate) defines the number of data elements
(bits) sent in 1s. The unit is bits per second (bps).
• The signal rate (pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud
rate) is the number of signal elements sent in 1s. The unit is
the baud.
• One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate
while decreasing the signal rate.
• Increasing the data rate increases the speed of transmission;
decreasing the signal rate decreases the bandwidth
requirement.
• The relationship between data rate and signal rate depends on
the value of r, and data pattern.
92
 Data Rate versus Signal Rate

• Three cases: the worst, best, and average.

o The worst case is when we need the maximum signal rate.
o The best case is when we need the minimum signal rate.
o In data communications, focus is on the average case.

• We can formulate the relationship between data rate and

signal rate as
S =c * N * (1/r) baud Here
N is the data rate (bps)
c is the case factor (between 0 & 1), which varies for each
case S is the number of signal elements
r is a ratio of number of data elements carried by each
element.
signal 9
3
 Example

A signal is carrying data in which one data element is

encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is 100
kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is
between 0 and 1?

Solution
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The
baud rate is then

33
 Bandwidth

Note

Although the actual bandwidth of a

digital signal is infinite, the effective
bandwidth is finite.

34
 Baseline Wandering

• In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a

running average of the received signal power. This
average is called the baseline.
• The incoming signal power is evaluated against this
baseline to determine the value of the data element.
• A long string of 0s or 1s can cause a drift in the
baseline (baseline wandering) and make it difficult for
the receiver to decode correctly.
• A good line coding scheme needs to prevent baseline
wandering.
35
 DC Component

• When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the
spectrum creates very low frequencies (results of Fourier analysis)
around zero, called DC (direct-current) components.
• Present problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies or a
system that uses electrical coupling (via a transformer).
• For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies below 200
Hz. Also a long-distance link may use one or more transformers to
isolate different parts of the line electrically.
• For these systems, we need a scheme with no DC component.

36
 ANALOG-TO-
DIGITAL
CONVERSION
• Digital signal is superior to an analog signal.
• The tendency today is to change an analog signal to
digital data (Two techniques, pulse code modulation
and delta modulation)

37
 Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM)

Components of PCM encoderA PCM encoder has three

processes
1. The analog signal is sampled.
2. The sampled signal is quantized.
3. The quantized values are encoded as streams of bits.

38
 Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM)

Three Different Sampling Methods for PCM

39
 Pulse Code Modulation
(PCM)

• Nyquist Theorem

Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.

40
 Transmission Modes

• The transmission of binary data across a link can be

accomplished in either
 parallel mode - In parallel mode, multiple bits are
sent with each clock tick. There is only one way to
send parallel data
 serial mode - In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each
clock tick. There are three subclasses of serial
transmission:
 Asynchronous
 Synchronous
 Isochronous.
41
Transmission Modes

42
 Transmission Modes

Parallel transmission

43
 Transmission Modes

Serial transmission

44
 Transmission Modes

Serial transmission – Asynchronous Transmission

Note

In asynchronous transmission, we send

1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or
more stop bits (1s) at the end of each
byte. There may be a gap between
each byte.

45
 Transmission Modes

Serial transmission – Asynchronous Transmission

Note

Asynchronous here means

“asynchronous at the byte level,”
but the bits are still synchronized;
their durations are the
same.

46
 Transmission Modes

Serial transmission – Asynchronous Transmission

47
 Transmission Modes

Serial transmission –Synchronous Transmission

Note

In synchronous transmission, we send

bits one after another without start or
stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility
of the receiver to group the bits.

48
 Transmission Modes

Serial transmission –Synchronous Transmission

49
 Transmission Modes

Difference between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission

Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission
1. Data is sent in form of blocks
1. Data is sent in form of byte or character.
or frames.
2. fast. 2. slow.
3. costly. 3. economical.
4. time interval of transmission is 4. time interval of transmission is not constant, it is
constant. random.
5. There is no gap present
5. There is present gap between data.
between data.
6. Transmission line remains empty during gap in
6. Efficient use of transmission line
character transmission.

7. needs precisely synchronized

7. have no need of synchronized clocks as parity bit is
clocks for the information of new
used in this transmission for information of new
bytes.
bytes.
163
 ANALOG –TO-ANALOG

• Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of

analog information by an analog signal.
• why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is
already analog. Modulation is needed if the medium
is bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass channel is
available to us.
Topics
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency
Modulation Phase
Modulation
51
 ANALOG –TO-ANALOG

Types of Analog-To-Analog Conversion Techniques

52
 ANALOG –TO-ANALOG

Amplitude Modulation
(AM)

53
 ANALOG –TO-ANALOG

Amplitude Modulation
(AM)

Note
The total bandwidth required
for AM can be determined
from the bandwidth of the
signal: BAM = 2B.

Amplitude Modulation (AM) Band

Allocation

54
 ANALOG –TO-ANALOG

Frequency Modulation (FM)

55
 ANALOG –TO-ANALOG

Frequency Modulation (FM)

Note

The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined from the

bandwidth of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + β)B.

Frequency Modulation (FM) Band

Allocation

56
 ANALOG –TO-ANALOG

Phase Modulation (PM)

57
 ANALOG –TO-ANALOG

Phase Modulation (PM)

Note

The total bandwidth required for PM can be determined from the

bandwidth and maximum amplitude of the modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + β)B.

58
Multiplexing Techniques:

● Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)

transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. As data
and telecommunications use increases, so does traffic.
● We focus on the three well-known multiplexing technique used in
bandwidth utilization which are Frequency-Division
Multiplexing (FDM), Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
(WDM) and Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM).
Dividing link into channels
❑ Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog [Link]

uses the concept of modulation
❑ FDM process:-
❑FDM demultiplexing example
Applications:

● A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting. A

special band from 530 to 1700 kHz is assigned to AM [Link] AM station
needs 10kHz of bandwidth. FM has a wider band of 88 to 108 MHz because
each station needs a bandwidth of 200 kHz.

● Another common use of FDM is in television broadcasting. Each TV channel

has its own bandwidth of 6 MHz.

● The first generation of cellular telephones (still in operation) also uses FDM.
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM):

WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals

•Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and
demultiplexing:
Application:

● SONET network(Synchronous optical

network)
● Local exchange network
● Optical transport network
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate

digital channels into one high-rate one
Synchronous time-division multiplexing:

In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the
unit duration is n times shorter.
Two devices can be-Data flow (simplex, half-
duplex, and full-duplex
[Link]-
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way
street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can
only receive.
2. Half-Duplex-
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive,
and vice versa.
[Link]-Duplex:
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously. The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street
with traffic flowing in both directions
Transmission Medium
Classes of Transmission Media
 Introduction to Transmission Media

Transmission media: Path for transmitting data between

devices
Two major types:

Guided Media (e.g., cables)

Unguided Media (e.g., wireless)

Guided Media — Twisted Pair, Coaxial, and Optical Fiber

 Twisted Pair Cable

Structure: Two insulated copper wires twisted together

Types:
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
Applications: Telephony, LAN (Ethernet)
Advantages:
Inexpensive, easy to install
Disadvantages:
Short distance, more susceptible to interference
 Coaxial Cable

Structure: Central copper conductor, dielectric insulator,

metallic shield, outer cover

Applications: Cable TV, broadband internet

Advantages:
Better shielding than twisted pair
Higher bandwidth

Disadvantages:
Thicker and more expensive than UTP
 Optical Fiber Cable
Structure: Glass or plastic core, cladding, protective
jacket
Working Principle: Light pulses for data transmission
(total internal reflection)
Types:
Single-mode fiber (SMF)
Multi-mode fiber (MMF)
Applications: Long-distance communication, internet
backbone
Advantages:
Extremely high bandwidth, no electromagnetic
interference
Disadvantages:
Expensive, fragile, difficult to splice
● SC-Square Connector
● ST-Straight Tip connector
● MT-RJ-Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack
Feature Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Optical Fiber

Medium Electrical Electrical Light

Bandwidth Low–Medium Medium Very High

Cost Low Medium High

Distance Short Moderate Long

Interference High Moderate Very Low

 Unguided Transmission Media

•Unguided media = Wireless communication

•Data
.
transmitted via electromagnetic (EM)
waves

•Three main types covered:

• Radio Waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared (IR)
 Radio Waves

Frequency Range: 3 kHz – 1 GHz

Propagation: Omnidirectional
Used in:
AM/FM radio
Television signals
Mobile phones
Bluetooth
Advantages:
Long-range communication
Penetrates walls
Disadvantages:
Prone to interference
Less secure
 Microwaves

Frequency Range: 1 GHz – 300 GHz

Propagation: Unidirectional
Used in:
Satellite communication
Radar
Wi-Fi
Cellular networks
Advantages:
High bandwidth
Used for point-to-point links
Disadvantages:
Requires clear line-of-sight

Affected by rain and weather

 Infrared (IR)

Frequency Range: 300 GHz – 400 THz

Propagation: Short-range, line-of-sight
Used in:
Remote controls
Wireless mouse/keyboards
Infrared cameras
Advantages:
Secure (short-range)
No interference with radio devices
Disadvantages:
Blocked by obstacles
Limited range
 Switching Techniques

Switching
Selecting path that data must take out of available
options.

Importance in communication networks

Two major types:
Circuit Switching
Packet Switching
Switching
 Circuit Switching
• Circuit is established between two ends
• Dedicated path for data transfer
• Resources are reserved intermediate switches
• Intermediate switches are connected by physical link
• Circuit disconnected.

Advantages
• Dedicated path
• No waiting time
• Data always reaches at the en

Disadvantages
• Channel is blocked during transmission
• Time is required for connection
• Requires more Bandwidth
Circuit Switching
 Packet switching

Data is broken into packets and sent independently.

Used in: Internet, computer networks

Characteristics:
No dedicated path
More efficient use of bandwidth
Can experience delays and packet loss
 Datagram Approach

Each packet is treated independently with no fixed path.

Features:
Connectionless
Packets may arrive out of order
Faster for short communications

Example: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

 Virtual Circuit Approach

Logical path established before communication begins.

Features:
Connection-oriented (though packet-switched)
All packets follow the same path
Sequence maintained

Example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

Feature Circuit Switching Datagram Virtual Circuit

Connection Type Connection-based Connectionless Connection-based

Packet Order Maintained Not guaranteed Maintained

Path Allocation Fixed Varies per packet Logical fixed

Efficiency Low High Medium