Chapter-2

Atomic Structure
The constitution of Nucleus and
arrangement/distribution of electrons AND
Nature/type of bonding among atoms
 Table of Contents

• Significance of Atomic Structure

• Fundamental concepts- Nucleus (protons,
neutrons) and electrons
• Bohr atomic model
• Quantum numbers
• Electronic configuration
• Periodic table, electropositivity &
electronegativity
• Atomic bonding- Primary bonding

Secondary bonding
Crystal structure tells us about the arrangement of atoms in the material. Like how the atoms
are placed in a lattice of that material. Order of lattice parameter can be measured in
A(Armstrong).
While micro structure may be of single crystal or poly crystal explains about the phases present,
• The simple idea of an atom is that an atom has
a nucleus and negatively charged electrons
whirling around the nucleus.

• Within the nucleus, there are

protons (positively charged)
and neutrons (no charge)

• Electrostatic forces hold the

nucleus and the electrons together.
https://www.theengineeringknowledge.com/w
hat-is-atom/
 Review of Atomic Structure
Atoms = nucleus (protons and neutrons) + electrons
Charges:
Electrons (-): protons(+) 1.6 × 10-19 Coulombs.
Neutrons are electrically neutral.

Masses:
Protons and Neutrons ~1.67 × 10-27 kg.
Electron 9.11 × 10-31 kg

Atomic mass = # protons + # neutrons

Atomic number (Z) = # protons

chemical identification of element

Electrically neutral atoms have- # protons = # electrons

7
• Isotopes
– iso = same
– atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
– have different atomic masses but the same atomic number
 Atomic mass units. Atomic weight.
Atomic mass unit (amu)
1 amu = 1/12 of mass of most common isotope of C
6 protons (Z=6) and six neutrons (N=6).
The atomic mass of C atom is 12 amu.
12

Atomic weight: A
Weighted average of atomic masses of naturally
occurring isotopes.
Atomic weight of carbon is 12.011 amu.
Atomic weight is often in mass per mole.
A mole
Amount of matter with mass in grams equal to the atomic mass in
amu
(A mole of carbon has a mass of 12 grams).

10
Bohr Model
The Bohr model is a modification of the Rutherford model since the Bohr model
explains the structure of the atom as composed of a nucleus surrounded by electrons.
But Bohr model is more advanced than the Rutherford model because it says that, the
electrons are always traveling in specific shells or orbits around the nucleus. This also
states that these shells have different energies and are spherical in shape.
Bohr stated that the orbitals of an atom have fixed energies and electrons can jump
from one energy level to the other emitting or absorbing energy.
Main Postulates of Bohr Model
•The electrons move around the nucleus in spherical orbitals which have
a fixed size and energy.
•Each orbit has a different radius and is named from nucleus to the
outside as n=1, 2, 3, etc. or n= K, L, M, etc. where n is the fixed energy
level number.
•The energy of an orbital is related to its size.
•The smallest orbit has the lowest energy. The atom is completely stable
when electrons are in the lowest energy level.
•When an electron is moving in a certain orbital, the energy of that
electron is constant.
•Electrons can move from one energy level to another by absorbing or
releasing energy.
Limitations of Bohr Model
•The Bohr model could not explain the Zeeman effect (effect of magnetic field
on the atomic spectrum).
•It could not explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on the atomic
spectrum).
•Bohr model fails to explain the atomic spectra of larger (than H) atoms.
*The spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by an electron during transitions between
different energy levels within an atom. When an electron gets excited from one energy level to another, it either
emits or absorbs light of a specific wavelength. Each element has a characteristic Spectrum through which it can easily
be recognized.
http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/bohr_at
om.html
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM
Although the quantum model is much harder to
understand than Bohr model, it accurately explains the
observations regarding the large or complex atoms. This
quantum model is based on quantum theory. According
to quantum theory, an electron has particle-wave duality
and it is impossible to locate the exact position of the
electron (uncertainty principle). Thus, this model is
mainly based on the probability of an electron to be
located anywhere in the orbital. It also states that the
orbitals are not always spherical. The orbitals have
particular shapes for different energy levels and are 3D
structures.
According to the quantum model, an electron can be
given a name with the use of quantum numbers. Four
types of quantum numbers are used in this;
•Principle quantum number, n
•Angular momentum quantum number, I
•Magnetic quantum number, ml
•Spin quantum number, ms
The principle quantum number explains the average distance of the orbital from the nucleus and the energy
level. The angular momentum quantum number explains the shape of the orbital. The magnetic quantum
number describes the orientation of orbitals in the space. The spin quantum number gives the spinning of
an electron in a magnetic field and the wave characteristics of the electron.
 Bohr model states that electrons behave as
particles whereas quantum model explains that the
electron has both particle and wave behavior

Quantum Numbers are the parameters explaining the electron

behaviour around the nucleus

 Principal Quantum Number indicates the size of an atom

 Higher the principal quantum number, farther the electron will
be located from nucleus
 Specifies the orientation in space of an orbital of a given energy (n) and
shape (l). This number divides the subshell into individual orbitals which
hold the electrons; there are 2l+1 orbitals in each subshell.
An ORBITAL is the shape of the space where there is a high probability of
finding electrons
The magnetic quantum number
- specifies orientation of orbitals (spatial orientation i.e. orientation in
space of orbitals)
- determines the number of orbitals within a certain energy sub-level from the relation

Any orbital can’t be occupied by more than

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cR4idek1Uo

Since any orbital can not be occupied by more than two electrons
, each electron spins on its own axis during its orbit around the
nucleus as the spinning of the Earth on its own axis during its
rotation around the Sun .
The spin quantum number determines the type of spin motion of the electron around its axis
in the orbital , which is either :
Clock wise ( ↑ ) with ms value equals to ( + ½ ) .
Anticlockwise (↓) with ms value equals to ( − ½ ) .
The spin motion of the two electrons of the same orbital around their own axis arises a
magnetic field in two opposite directions ( spin-paired state ) ( ↑↓ ) .
Orbitals have three different possibilities depending on the number of electrons located in
them as follows :
( ) Empty orbital .
( ↑ ) Half-filled orbital contains one electron .
( ↑↓ ) full-filled orbital contains 2 pairing electrons that have opposite spins and called spin
paired state .
Although the two electrons of the same orbital carry the same negative charge , they do not
repel with each other , because the magnetic field arises from the spinning of one electron is
in a direction opposing the direction of the other magnetic field arising from spinning of the
other electron and that decreases the repulsive force between the two electrons .
 Important Information
Since the orbiting electrons ≠are tiny moving charges, a
small magnetic field is created around each atom.
These magnetic fields have a specific orientation or
direction; this orientation is called the atom's magnetic
moment. Basically, all of the atoms in an object act like
several tiny magnets.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nl6ZNod505U
What causes an electron in an atom to move to a higher
energy level?
An electron will jump to a higher energy level when excited by an
external energy gain such as a large heat increase or the presence
of an electrical field, or collision with another electron.
Explanation:
Electrons can gain energy from outside sources that may be
intense enough to allow them to jump from their present levels to
their next higher energy levels. Excited electrons in higher energy
levels do not stay there long, as they prefer to return to their
normal levels.
Rapid oxidation (or burning) of many elements will result in
colorful displays. Electrons excited into higher orbits by the heat of
burning will jump back to their original orbits as the material
subsequently cools, giving off energy photons in the process. This
can be seen in the flames of fires, and the spectacles of fireworks.
When an electric field is passed through an element in the
gaseous state, is electrons will jump back and forth between
higher and lower energy levels to emit certain frequencies of
photons specific to the element.
Collisions between atoms can also result in electron energy jumps,
but viewing these results is not as common.
 https://www.slideserve.com/arissa/the-bohr-
model-of-the-hydrogen-atom

Protons
The sequence of energy sub-levels is arranged
ascendingly according to their energy follows

The order : 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p

< 5s < 4d < 5d < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d
< 7p

Filling the energy sublevels : s up to 2 electrons

, p up to 6 electrons , d up to 10 electrons , f up
to 14 electrons .
The filling up of orbitals in the sublevels follows
a particular set of guidelines known as Hund’s
rule, which states that:

-Every orbital is singly occupied before it is

doubly occupied.

-All electrons in singly occupied orbitals have

the same spin in order to maximize the spin.
s1
Example : write the electron configuration for the following elements , according to
building-up principle: 11Na 30Zn 19K
 Metals

• 1 to 3 valence electrons

• givers of electrons

• lose electrons

• make (+) ions

• left side of periodic table

 Nonmetals

• 5 to 8 valence electrons

• takers of electrons

• gain electrons

• make (-) ions

• right side of periodic table

 Ion

• atom with a charge

• atom has gained or lost electrons
• gained e- = (-) charge
• lost e- = (+) charge

• (+) ion = cation

• (-) ion = anion
Electronegativity - how willing atoms are to accept electrons

Subshells with one electron - low electronegativity

Subshells with one missing electron -high electronegativity

Electronegativity increases from left to right

Metals are electropositive – can give up their few valence electrons to

become positively charged ions
Which of the following electron configurations are of Sodium and
an Inert Gas? Justify your selection. [4]

(a) 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2
(b) 1s22s22p63s23p6
(c) 1s22s22p5
(d) 1s22s22p63s1

Sodium (d) 1s22s22p63s1

There is one valance electron exists in the
outermost shell of Sodium that is eager to give
this electron for stability.

Inert Gas (b) 1s22s22p63s23p6

Outermost shell is full i.e. atom is stable and
chemically inert.
 Atomic Bonding
Bonds in Solids

• atoms achieve a stable number of

electrons

• involves valence (outer) electrons

• make compounds and/or solids

• Energy required to separate two
atoms to an infinite separation
 Types of Bonding
Primary Bonding: e- are transferred or shared
Strong (100-1000 KJ/mol or 1-10 eV/atom)

Ionic: electron transfer takes place

Example - Na+Cl
Strong Coulomb interaction between
a positive atom (lost an electron, Na+) and
a negative atom (an extra electron, Cl-)
Covalent: electrons shared between the atoms.
Example - H2
Metallic:
Atoms lose some electrons from valence band
Those electrons are shared by all the material
Secondary Bonding: no e- transferred or shared
Interaction of atomic/molecular dipoles
Weak (< 100 KJ/mol or < 1 eV/atom)

 Fluctuating Induced Dipole (inert gases, H2, Cl2…)

 Permanent dipoles (polar molecules - H2O, HCl...)
45
Type of metallic ionic covalen intermolecular forces
bonding t

Type of Between Metals Between Between molecules

elements metals and nonmet
used nonmetals als

Givers &/or Between Between Between

takers of givers givers and takers
electrons takers

Description Valence e- Transfer e- Share e- Hold covalently bonded molecules together as a

roam freely solid.
between Makes (+) Forms
many and discrete
atoms (-) ions molecul
(delocalize that are es.
d). Sea of attracted
e- to each
surroundin other.
g (+)
kernels.

Type of Solid Ceramics Polymer Helps form solid polymers

material metallic and glass s and
formed elements some
and alloys ceramic
s/glasse
s

Strength of Relatively Very Very Weak

bond strong strong strong

Properties Good Brittle, Insulat Help determine a lot of properties of covalent

Produced conductor ors, compounds (polymers). Soft and plastic
s, high don’t
workable, melt corrode
corrode temps,
easily, noncond
generally uctors as
high melt solids,
temps but
variable don’t
corrode
 *The electric force between charged bodies
at rest is conventionally called electrostatic
force or Coulomb force.

The cation, being a positively charged ion,

is attracted to the negatively charged
anion as described by Coulomb's law:
Coulomb's law states that oppositely
charged species attract each other. ... If the
charges on the two ions are opposite in
sign, they will attract each other.

The atom losing one or more electrons becomes a cation—a positively charged ion. The atom gaining one or more electron becomes an anion
—a negatively charged ion. When the transfer of electrons occurs, an electrostatic attraction between the two ions of opposite charge takes
place and an ionic bond is formed

Mutual ionization by electron transfer

(remember electronegativity
table)
• Anion = negatively charged atom
• Cation = positively charged atom

Ions are attracted by strong coulombic interaction

• Oppositely charged atoms attract
Cations (+) and anions (-) are
attracted to each other in an
ionic bond
 Example: NaCl
Na has 11 electrons, 1 more than needed for a full outer
shell

11 Protons Na 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S1 donates e-

11 Protons Na+ 1S2 2S2 2P6 10 e- left
Na shrinks and
Cl has 17 electron, 1 less than needed for a full outer shell Cl expands

17 Protons Cl 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5 receives e-

17 Protons Cl- 1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 18 e-
Electronegativity - how willing atoms are to accept electrons

Subshells with one electron - low electronegativity

Subshells with one missing electron -high electronegativity

Electronegativity increases from left to right

Metals are electropositive – can give up their few valence electrons to become positively charged ions
 Electrons are shared between the atoms
(Polymers and Some Ceramics)

Covalent bonds- HIGHLY ***directional

in direction of greatest orbital overlap

***The meaning of covalent bonds being directional is that

atoms bonded covalently prefer specific orientations in space
relative to one another. As a result, molecules in which atoms
are bonded covalently have definite shapes.
Example: Carbon Zc = 6 (1S2 2S2 2P2)
N’ = 4, 8 - N’ = 4  can form up to four covalent
bonds

Example: Cl2 molecule. ZCl =17 (1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5)
N’ = 7, 8 - N’ = 1  can form only one covalent bond
 ethylene molecule:

polyethylene molecule:

ethylene mer

diamond:
(each C atom has four covalent
bonds with four other carbon atoms)

53
 Metallic Bonding

All pure metals have metallic bonding and therefore

exist as metallic structures. Metallic bonding
consists of a regular arrangement of positive ion
cores of the metals surrounded by a mobile
delocalized sea of electrons.
• Each atom donates its valence electrons to the whole
• Atom therefore becomes a cation (here called an ion
core)
• Donated electrons form an electron cloud
surrounding all the ion cores
• Electron cloud binds all the ion cores together by
coulombic forces

• Valence electrons are delocalized:

• Shared by all atoms in the material
• Electrons are free to drift throughout the material
• Provides unique properties only found in metals
– shiny metallic luster
– good electrical and thermal conductivity
– many others ...
(+) Cations in a ‘sea’ of (-) electrons.
• The movement of these electrons makes metals
good conductors of heat and electricity.
• There is an absence of these free electrons in
ionically or covalently bonded materials therefore
they are insulators.
Interatomic and intermolecular bonds that are relatively weak and for which
bonding energies are relatively small. Normally atomic or molecular dipoles are
involved. Secondary bonding types are van der Waals and hydrogen.
Van Der Waals Bond
Types of Van Der Waals Bond
Permanent Dipole Bond/Hydrogen Bond

Examples
 Ionic Covalent Metallic Intermolecular
moderate and
Bond strength strong very strong weak
variable
low to
moderate to moderate;
Hardness very hard, brittle soft and plastic
high ductile,
malleable
conducts by ion good
insulators in
Electrical transport only insulator in solid conductors; by
solid and liquid
conductivity when and liquid electron
states
dissociated transport
moderate to
Melting point low generally high low
high
soluble in
soluble in polar very low
Solubility insoluble organic
solvents solubilities
solvents
diamond,
Cu, Ag, Au, ice, organic
Examples most minerals oxygen, organic
other metals solids (crystals)
molecules
 A chemical element that forms a simple
substance having properties intermediate
between those of a typical metal and a typical
nonmetal
Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, and tellurium are commonly
recognised as metalloids. Depending on the
author, one or more from selenium, polonium,
or astatine are sometimes added to the list.
The importance of noble gas
structures
At a simple level (like GCSE) a lot
of importance is attached to the
electronic structures of noble gases
like neon or argon which have eight
electrons in their outer energy
levels (or two in the case of
helium). These noble gas structures
A Chemical Bond occurs when electron
are thought of as being in some
are shared. A molecules are formed
from the overlap of orbitals and way a "desirable" thing for an atom
sharing of electrons to have.
The octet rule states that atoms lose gain You may well have been left with
or share electrons in to acquire a full set of 8
the strong impression that when
valence electrons
other atoms react, they try to
achieve noble gas structures.
As well as achieving noble gas
structures by transferring electrons
A Covalent bond is the electrostatic
from one atom to another as in
attraction between positive nuclei
ionic bonding, it is also possible for
and shared pairs of electrons
atoms to reach these stable
structures by sharing electrons to
give covalent bonds.
 Polar Covalent Bonds

The covalent bond is likely to be polar when the electrons are

unequally shared. The skewness arises due to the difference in the
electronegativities of the two atoms. Electronegativity is a
measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of
electrons. It is measured using a scale known as the Pauling scale
and ranges from 0.7 to 4. The following table explains the type of
chemical bond formed due to this electronegativity difference
 Polar Covalent Bond
Examples

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

Examples