Systems in

Animals
The Skeleton
 TYPES OF SKELETONS
OAll animals need support systems to be able
to move around in the respective
environments.
OAnimals have skeletons that support their
bodies and allow them to move.
OAn animal’s skeleton is adapted to its specific
type of movement and mode of nutrition.
 TYPES OF SKELETONS
ODifferent forms of movement - depending on
the habitat (e.g. walking, running, crawling,
hopping, swimming or flying).
OThe degree of support required by an aquatic
animal differs from that of terrestrial animals.
OAquatic animals need less support
because the water supports their bodies.
OA greater degree of support is needed by
terrestrial animals.
 TYPES OF SKELETONS
OThe larger and more complex the
animal, the more effective the support
must be.
OThe three types of skeletons are:
OHydrostatic skeleton
OExoskeleton
OEndoskeleton
 TYPES OF
SKELETONS
- Hard case is
formed outside
- Supporting
structures inside
the body soft tissues
- Molluscs & - Bones (organic)
arthropods ENDOSKELT
ON - Muscles attached
outside
HYDROSTATI
C

EXOSKELETO
N
Consider
advantages - Fluid under
and pressure in
disadvantages
closed body
of each
- Round worms,
skeleton
flat worms jelly
fish
TYPES OF SKELETONS
TYPES OF SKELETONS
TYPES OF SKELETONS
 FUNCTION OF THE ENDOSKELETON
- HUMAN SKELETON
206 Bones together with joints and muscles make up the skeletal system:

O Protects & supports the internal organs of the body against mechanical
damage
O Brings about locomotion as it provides a rigid system against which the
muscles can pull
O Gives the body strength and shape
O A site for the formation of red blood cells
O Stores mineral salts
O The ossicles (smallest bones in the body) are crucial in the process of
hearing
 STRUCTURES IN THE
ENDOSKELETON
O All the bones of the skeleton

O Cartilage - surrounds the edges of the bone at joints to

prevent friction
O Connective tissue - surrounds the bone

O Ligaments - joins bone to bone

O Tendons - joins muscle to bone

O Joints - junctions between the bones of the skeleton

 TYPES OF BONES
O The bones of the body are classified as
long, flat, small or irregular
HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
Appendicular Human Skeletal
Axial Skeleton
Skeleton (126 System (206
(80 bones)
bones) Bones)
THE AXIAL SKELETON
O Skull
O Vertebral column
O Rib cage

FUNCTION
O Protect internal organs
O Allow flexibility of movement
O Allow for the attachment of the appendicular
skeletal system
 THE SKULL
O Made up of the cranium and facial bones.
O Cranium is made up of eight flat bones which fit together by
special jagged joints called sutures which are immovable joints.
O The cranium encloses the brain and protects it.
O On the underside of the skull is a large opening called the
foramen magnum through which the spinal cord leaves the skull.
O On either side of the foramen magnum is a smooth ridge called the
condyle.
O The two condyles make contact with the first cervical vertebra
called the atlas.
O The two condyles articulate (to move at a joint) with the atlas.
O Facial bones are made up of fifteen irregular bones that form the
forehead, cheeks, nasal bones, temples, upper and lower jaw.
O These bones are all immovable excepting the lower jaw.
 THE SKULL
O The sides and the front of the jaws are gently curved.
O The jaws of an adult have 32 teeth. The number and
arrangement is referred to as the dental formula.
O The dental formula of an adult is:

O 2 inscisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3 molars

THE SKULL
Craniu
m

Facial
Bones
THE SKULL
THE SKULL
 THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
OConsists of thirty-three bones, the vertebrae
which are joined together by ligaments.
OFive regions can be distinguished:
O7 Cervical vertebrae (neck region)
O12 Thoracic vertebrae (chest region)
O5 Lumbar vertebrae (lower back region)
O5 Sacral vertebrae (fused together in the pelvic
region)
O4 fused vertebrae – Coccyx
 THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
OEach vertebra interlocks with both the front
vertebra and the vertebra behind it to from a
continuous spinal canal through to the cranium
through which the spinal cord runs.
OThe gaps between the vertebrae allow the spinal
nerves to enter or exit the spinal cord.
OBetween the vertebrae are cartilaginous discs.
OThese discs prevent friction between the
vertebrae and act as shock absorbers during
walking, running and jumping.
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
O The first vertebra is called the atlas and is responsible for
the up and down (nodding) movement of the head.
O The second vertebra is called the axis and is responsible
for the sided to side (rotary) movement of the head.
O Functions of the vertebral column:
O Supports the skull.
O Surrounds and protects the spinal cord.
O Place for the attachment of the ribs, pectoral and pelvic girdles.
O Place of attachment of the muscles.
O S-shaped curvature and separate vertebrae provides flexibility and
absorbs shock.
O Gaps between vertebra allow nerves to enter and leave the spinal
cord.
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 THE RIB CAGE
O The rib cage consists of twelve thoracic vertebrae, twelve pairs of
ribs and the sternum (breast bone).
O The sternum is a long, flat, dagger-shaped bone in front of the rib cage.
O The ribs are narrow, flat arched bones.
O All twelve ribs are attached at the back to the vertebral column.
O The first seven pairs of ribs are directly attached to the sternum in
front by cartilage and are known as true ribs.
O The next three pairs are attached to the preceding rib with cartilage
before being joined to the sternum and are known as false ribs.
O The last two pairs are not attached to the sternum at all and are called
floating ribs.
O Functions of the rib cage:
O Protects the organs in the thoracic cavity i.e. heart and lungs.
O Plays a role in breathing as the movement of the rib cage increases and decreases
the volume of the thoracic cavity.
THE RIB CAGE
true
stern
ribs
um

false ribs
costal
ribs cartilage
floating
ribs
 THE APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
O Pectoral Girdle
O Upper Limbs
O Pelvic Girdle
O Lower Limbs

FUNCTION
O Allow flexibility of movement
O Allow for the attachment of connective tissues
 THE PECTORAL GIRDLE
O Consists of two scapulae (shoulder blades) at the back
and two clavicles (collarbones) in front.
O The scapula :
O is a large, flat, triangular bone with a prominent ridge on the
back for the attachment of muscles.
O not attached to the axial skeleton, but slides over the back of
the ribs.
O has a shallow socket known as the glenoid cavity into which
the head of the humerus fits to form a ball-and-socket joint.
O The clavicle is an S-shaped bone that articulates with the
scapula on the one side and with the sternum on the
other side.
THE PECTORAL GIRDLE
 THE PECTORAL GIRDLE
O The upper limbs:
O Made up of six different kinds of bones.
O The humerus is a long bone that fits into the glenoid cavity
and joins to the scapula and the elbow at either end.
O Joins with the ulna and radius of the forearm and forms a hinge
joint at the elbow.
O The ulna and radius join with the eight small wrist bones called
carpals forming a gliding joint.
O Five metacarpals form the palm of the hand.
O Fourteen phalanges (3 per finger, 2 per thumb) form hinge joints
with each other.
THE UPPER LIMBS
 THE PELVIC GIRDLE
O Consists of two hip bones that are joined in the middle by
a semi-immovable joint called the pubic symphysis.
O The two hip bones are made up of three fused bones:
O Ilium
O Ischium
O Pubis (pubic bone)
O A deep socket known as the acetabulum occurs in
each hip bone where the head of the femur fits into
forming a ball-and-socket joint.
O At the back, the hip bones are attached to the sacrum.
O The female body is adapted to giving birth,
therefore the pelvic girdle of the female is wider than that of the
male.
THE PELVIC GIRDLE
 THE PELVIC GIRDLE
O Made up of seven different types of bones.
O The femur (thigh bone) is the longest bone in the human body. The upper
end articulates with the hip bone at the acetabulum.
O The lower end of the femur articulates with the tibia to form the hinge joint
at
the knee.
O The patella (knee cap) is a flat triangular bone that occurs in the front
of the femur and forms part of the knee joint.
O The tibia (thicker) articulates tarsals to form part of the ankle joint
(hinge joint).
O The fibula (thinner) articulates tarsals to form part of the ankle joint (hinge
joint).
O Seven tarsals are bones that form the ankle.
O Five metatarsals form the arch of the foot.
O Fourteen phalanges - toe bones (3 per toe, 2 per big toe).
THE LOWER LIMBS
COMPARISON OF PECTORAL
AND PELVIC GIRDLE
Pectoral Pelvic Girdle
Girdle
Flexible Rigid

Bones not joined Bones joined

together
Not attached to Attached to
vertebral column vertebral column
Glenoid cavity is Acetabulum is deep
shallow
 STRUCTURE OF THE LONG
BONE & BONE TISSUE
O Bones such as the humerus and femur are called long bones.
O Long bones consist of a long, cylindrical middle part the shaft
(diaphysis) with a thicker part, the head (epiphysis) on either end.
O Two types of bone tissue can be distinguished:
O Compact bone: consists of hard, dense bone tissue. It forms
the surfaces of bones and the shafts of long bones. Compact
bones provide strength and support to the skeleton.
O Spongy bone: consists of softer, lighter bone tissue. It forms
the heads of long bones and contains red marrow which
produces erythrocytes and leucocytes. Spongy bones exert
resistance against forces that act on bones.
STRUCTURE OF THE LONG
BONE & BONE TISSUE
 STRUCTURE OF THE LONG
BONE & BONE TISSUE
O Long bones have more-or-less rounded ends which are called
the head or epiphysis of the bone.
O The heads are made up of spongy bone tissue.
O Within the spongy bone tissue, the tissue is laid down in
criss-cross fashion like lattice work with many gaps in
between and not in solid masses. This makes the bones
lighter
but does not reduce their strength.
O The epiphysis is covered
by hyaline cartilage referred
to as articular cartilage.
STRUCTURE OF THE LONG
BONE & BONE TISSUE
 STRUCTURE OF THE LONG
BONE & BONE TISSUE
O The articular cartilage reduces friction at the joints.
O The portion between the two heads is called the shaft or
diaphysis.
O The shaft bone is made up of compact bone tissue.
O Compact bone tissue is covered by Periosteum on the
outside and endosteum on the inside which lines the marrow
cavity.
O Long bones have a central hollow cavity called the marrow
cavity.
 STRUCTURE OF THE LONG
BONE & BONE TISSUE
O The marrow cavity is surrounded by compact bone which
gives the bone its strength while the hollow cavity
reduces the mass of the bone without reducing the
strength.
O Inside the marrow is a spongy tissue called bone marrow.
O The bone marrow of the breast bone, skull, hips and spine
contain stem cells that produce blood cells (erythrocytes,
leucocytes and platelets). This process is called
Haemopoiesis.
STRUCTURE OF THE LONG
BONE & BONE TISSUE
HAVERSION SYSTEM - BONE
TISSUE
HAVERSION SYSTEM - BONE
TISSUE
HAVERSION SYSTEM - BONE
TISSUE
Cartilage & Connective
Tissue
 Cartilage: Connective Tissue
O Semi-transparent, very hard, very strong, tough flexible connective
tissue.
O Made up of a matrix of the protein chondrin with cartilage cells called
chondrocytes (which appear in pairs or groups of four) within fluid-
filled spaces called lacunae.
O Three types of cartilage: hyaline, white fibro-cartilage and yellow-
inelastic cartilage.
O Functions of cartilage:
O Reduces friction between bones at joints.
O Forms part of the larynx.
O Forms C-shaped cartilage rings that keep the trachea open.
O Forms cartilaginous discs between the vertebrae act as shock absorbers.
O Cartilage added to the rim of sockets, deepens the sockets.
O The ear lobe and the epiglottis are made up of cartilage.
 Tendons: Connective Tissue
O Consist of inelastic, white
fibrous connective tissue that
attaches muscle to bone.
O Since they are inelastic, they
are able to transmit the
contraction and relaxation of
the muscles to the bones,
bringing about movement.
 Ligaments: Connective
Tissue
O Consist of tough, yellow,
elastic connective tissue that
attach bone to bone.
O Ligaments stretch only enough
to control the movement in a
joint.
O They hold bones in a joint in
position and in such a way as to
stabilise the joint.
 Activity 6.3.1:
1. Epiphysis (head)
2. Diaphysis (shaft)
3. Epiphysis (head)
4. Hyaline articular
cartilage
5. Spongy bone with red
bone marrow
6. Marrow cavity
7. Endosteum
8. Compact bone
9. Yellow marrow
10.Periosteum
 Activity 6.3.1:
1. Bicep/skeletal/striated
muscle - contracted
2. Triceps/skeletal/striated
muscle – relaxed
3. Humerus
4. Radius
5. Ulna
6. Glenoid cavity – ball and
socket joint
7. Elbow – hinge joint

A –Scapula
B – Tendon
 Activity 6.3.1:
How the tissue is structurally adapted to suit
Tissue Function/s
its’ function/s

Tendons Connect muscles Since they are inelastic√, they are able to transmit
to bones √ the contraction and relaxation of the muscles to
the bones √ bringing about movement√
Ligament Join bone to bone √ Made up of yellow elastic fibres√ which enable the
s ligaments to stretch √ allowing bones to move in different
directions at joints√

Cartilage Reduces friction Since it is softer √ than bone but still strong, very
between bones at hard, tough flexible connective tissue √ it is ideally
joints √ suited to reduce friction at the joints √ and to act
as a shock absorber between the vertebrae √
 Joints
O Are places at which one or more bones meet. There are 230
joints in the body.
O At joints, ligaments join bone to bone and muscles are
attached to the bones by tendons.
O The muscles, tendons and ligaments work together to bring
about movement of the bones at the joints.
O The joints are classified according to their degree of
movement and there are three classifications of joints:
 Joints
O Fixed or immovable joints such as the serrated sutures
between the bones of the cranium (fibrous) or the joint
between the ribs and sternum (cartilaginous) – does not allow
any movement.
 Joints
O Slightly moveable or semi-moveable joints such as the pivot
joint formed by the axis and the skull, the joints between the
vertebrae and the pubic symphysis (between the two pubic
bones in the pelvic girdle) and the gliding joints formed by the
bones of the wrist and ankle.
 Joints
O Freely moveable or Synovial joints such as the ball and socket
joints of the shoulder and hip; and the hinge joints of the
elbow and knee - allows free movement.
O TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINES
O Synovial joints are classified according
to the type of movement that takes
place at the joint.
O Ball-and-socket joint
O Hinge joint
O Pivot joint
O Gliding (ellipsoidal)
joint
Joints
 Structure of Synovial Joints
O The end of each head is
covered with articular
(hyaline) cartilage –
reduces friction between the
two bones during movement.
O A strong ligament joins the
two bones together.
O A capsular ligament
encloses the whole joint and
is lined by a synovial
membrane which secretes
synovial fluid.
Muscles
Muscles
Muscles
Muscles
 Bones and Antagonistic
Movement of Muscles
O Bones of the skeletal system are not continuous – joints are
present with ligaments that join the bone to bone to allow the
bones to move in different directions.
O These joints allow the different parts of the skeleton to work
separately, bringing about movement.
O At joints, the ends of the skeletal muscles are joined to the
bones by means of tendons – the tendons are inelastic, which
allows tension to be created in the muscles so that when the
muscle is contracted, the tension is transferred to the bones to
which they are attached.
 Bones and Antagonistic
Movement of Muscles
O The skeletal muscles are arranged in pairs and the two
muscles working in pairs work in opposition to each other –
antagonistic muscles. So that when the one muscle contracts
the other muscle relaxes.
O An example of a pair of antagonistic muscles is the triceps
and the bicep.
 Bones and Antagonistic
Movement of Muscles
O The antagonistic muscles function to bring about movement at
the joints.
O When the bicep contracts the triceps relax and the arm is
raised.
O When the triceps contract the bicep relaxes and the arm is
straightened.
 Structure of Skeletal
Muscles
O The muscles attached to the skeleton (skeletal striated muscles)
are responsible for all the voluntary actions such as walking.
O Each fibre is made up of myofibrils and each myofibril is made up
of thick myosin filaments and thinner actin filaments.
O When muscles contract, the actin filaments slide inward amongst
the myosin filaments
O In this way the myofibril shortens and
the entire muscle thus becomes
shorter i.e. it contracts.
O When the muscle relaxes, the actin
filaments slide outwards from the
myosin filaments and the muscle
then lengthens.
Structure of Skeletal
Muscles
Muscles
 Activity 6.5.1:
1. Give the correct biological term for each of the following:
(4)
1.1. Places at which two or more bones meet.
Joint
1.2. Muscles which work in opposition to each other.
Antagonistic muscles
1.3. The type of muscles that are attached to the skeleton.
Skeletal / striated muscles
1.4. The membrane that secretes the synovial fluid.
Synovial membrane
2. Name five types of joints and give examples of each.
(10)
1.Hinge – elbow and knee, 2. Pivot – axis, 3. Ball-and-socket
– shoulder or hip, 4. Gliding – wrist and ankle,
5. Fixed/immovable – suture
 Activity 6.5.1:
3. Make a labelled drawing to illustrate a typical synovial joint.
(9)
Heading: Typical Synovial Joint √
(below the diagram)
Correct diagram √
Diagram rules √ √
Labels (5)

.
 Activity 6.5.1:
4. Explain how the biceps and triceps work in bringing about movement of the arm. (6)
O Work antagonistically - in opposition to each other √
O When the bicep contracts √ the triceps relax √ and the arm is raised √.
O Tension from the bicep is transferred to the tendon which is inelastic and when the bicep
shortens it pulls the bone upwards √
O When the triceps contract the bicep relaxes and the arm is straightened √.
5. Study the X-ray above, showing the right shoulder joints and associated structures.

Clavicle

Head of the
Glenoid cavity
humerus

Ribs
Humerus

5.1 Identify and label the head of the humerus, the glenoid cavity, the clavicle and the ribs. (4)
 Activity 6.5.1:
5. Study the X-ray above, showing the right shoulder
joints and associated structures.

5.1.2 Can you see the ligaments, tendons and

cartilages? Motivate your answer.
No√. These are soft tissues √ and X-rays can only show
up the hard parts through which the X-rays cannot pass
through √.
 Activity 6.5.1:
6. What is meant by skeletal muscles?
(1)
Skeletal muscles are muscles that are attached to the
skeleton and bring about movement of parts of the
body by contraction and relaxation.

7. Identify the functional unit of a skeletal muscle,

numbered 6. Sarcomere
(1)
 Activity 6.5.1:
8. Study the diagrams
below and answer the
questions that follow.
8.1. Identify the parts
labelled 1 to 5. (5)
1 – epimysium
2 – perimysium
3 – muscular bundle / fascicle
4 – muscle fibre
5 – myofibril
8.2. Name the structure in diagram B.
(1)
sarcomere
 Activity 6.5.1:
8.3. Representations C
and D shows the
sarcomere in a relaxed
and contracted state.
8.3.1. Provide labels for
the parts of the
sarcomere numbered
7 to 9. (3)
7 – Z-line
8 – actin
9 – myosin
8.3.2. Which representation, C or D shows a sarcomere in a contracted state?
D (1)
8.3.3. Explain the contraction of a skeletal muscle using representations C and
D. (3)
O During contraction the thin actin filaments slide past the thicker myosin
filaments so that there is more overlap of the actin and myosin.
O The Z-lines move closer to each other, thus shortening the sarcomere.
O The shortened sarcomere leads to the shortening of the myofibrils, the muscle
fibres, and eventually the whole muscle.
 Diseases of the Skeleton
O RICKETS AND OSTEOMALACIA:
O Lack of vitamin D in the diet and lack of sunlight
cause a disease known as rickets in children.
O Children with rickets have deformed skeletons.
O Adults with lack of vitamin D and sunlight show a
condition called osteomalacia, a symptom of which is the softening of the bones.

O OSTEOPOROSIS:
O Calcium is a mineral salt that is extremely important in our bodies.
O As soon as we reduce the amount of calcium in our foods, the body draws on
calcium from our bones.
O Pores (holes) appear in our bones because of this loss of
calcium.
O We say the bones have become porous.
O Such bones may break even after the slightest fall.
O This condition is known as osteoporosis.
 Diseases of the Skeleton
O RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS:
O The synovial membrane becomes inflamed and
then produces certain enzymes.
O These enzymes cause the articular cartilage to
break up.
O Fibrous tissue replaces the cartilage.
O Calcium is deposited into the fibrous tissue.
O Movement is reduced until the joint is almost fused.

O OSTEOARTHRITIS:
O Caused by the articular cartilage of the joints becoming worn out.
O The bones of the joint grate (grind) against each other, causing little outgrowths of
bone to be produced.
O A tremendous amount of pain is produced when these outgrowths of bone touch
each other, when there is movement at the joint.
O Hip, spine, knee joints and the joints of the fingers are particularly affected.
 Diseases of the Skeleton
O GOUT:
O In some people the body produces too much uric acid.
O This uric acid accumulates in the form of crystals in the joints, causing pain.
O The joints of the toes, especially the big toes are most seriously affected.

O LEUKEMIA AND BONE MARROW TRANSPLANTS:

O Leukemia is a type of cancer which affects the blood cells.
O This disease is caused by the abnormal stem cells in the bone marrow
producing defective or immature blood cells.
O These abnormal stem cells are usually treated by chemotherapy.
Unfortunately, large doses of chemotherapy required to also destroys
healthy bone marrow.
O A bone marrow transplant is necessary to replace the diseased and
damaged bone marrow.
O Broadly speaking a bone marrow transplant is performed as follows:
 Diseases of the Skeleton
O A large quantity of bone marrow is taken from a suitable
donor by inserting a needle into the donor’s hip bone.
O The donor’s marrow is given to the patient through a tube
leading to his/her veins (similar to the way in which blood is
given to a patient).
O The donated bone marrow migrates to the marrow cavities in
the large bones of the patient.
O The donated bone marrow produces normal blood cells.
O Throughout this period the patient is given antibiotics to
prevent infection and immune-suppressants to prevent the
patient rejecting the donated bone marrow.