Chapter IV:

Understanding Data and

Ways to Systematically
Collect Data
Understanding Research
Methods and Designs
Research Methodology

 is a systematic plan for conducting research

(study.com)
 is the specific procedures or techniques used to
identify, select, process, and analyze
information about a topic (libguides.com)
Research Design

 it refers to the overall strategy that you choose

to integrate the different componets of the study
in a coherent and logical way (researchgate.net)
 It is a plan, structure, and strategy of
invetigation to obtain answers to research
questions (Kumar, 2011)
Types of Research
Designs in Qualitative
Method
 Compare the two sample titles

1) Consumer’s Response to PETA’s Advocacy

Advertisements on Vegetarianism

2) Possibility of Golden Snail Eggs (Pomacea

canaliculata) as Supplementary Food for
Tilapia (Oreochromosis niloticus)
1. Descriptive Research Design

 Itis used to gather information or

current situations and conditions
 Itusually used in securing opinions and
trends through the use of survey
questionnares.
 Sample Research Titles

 Consumer’s Response to PETA’s Advocacy

Advertisements on Vegetarianism
 Research Processes and Skills Practiced by TVL –
ICT Students
 Study habits of Students With Highest Honors in
Senior High School
2. Experimental Research Design

 Experimental design has an

assumption of cause-and-effect
relationship.
 In
this design, the researcher introduces
the intervention that is assumed to be
the cause of change and waits until it
has produced the change.
 Sample Research Titles

 Efficiency of Coconut (Cocos nucifera) Fertilizer

 Efficacy of Kakawati (Gliricidia sepium) leaves and
Guava (Psidium guajava) leaves as a cure for Scabies
 Antimicrobial Activity of Akapulko (Casia alata)
extract against Staphylococcus aureus
 Possibility of Golden Snail Eggs (Pomacea
canaliculata) as Supplementary Food for Tilapia
(Oreochromosis niloticus)
Sampling Techniques
in Qualitative
Research Method
 Sampling

 Sampling is the process of selecting few (a sample)

from a bigger group (a population) to become the
basis for predicting the prevalence of an unknown
piece of information, situation, or outcome, regarding
the bigger group.
 “The larger the sample size, the more accurate the
findings”
 Determining the Sample Size

 The sample size can be obtained by the Slovin’s

formula:

Where:
n – is the sample size
N – is the population
e – is th margin of error (5%, 2%, or 1%)
 Sample Computations

 Given a population of 10, 000, complete the table

below.

Margin of error Sample size

1% 5, 000
2% 2, 000
5% 385
 Sample Computations

1) Suppose you plan to conduct a study among 1,500 Grade 11

students enrolled in the TVL track. How many respondents
are needed using a margin of error of 2%?
2) A researcher wants to conduct a survey. If the population of a
big university is 35, 000, find the sample size if the margin of
error is 5%.
Types of ...
 Types of Sampling techniques

1) Probability Sampling 2) Non – Probability

a) Simple Random Sampling
Sampling a) Convenience Sampling
b) Systematic Sampling b) Purposive Sampling
c) Stratified Random
c) Snowball Sampilng
Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

 Simple Random Sampling

is the most frequent used
type of probability sampling
technique.
 Thisis characterize by the
idea that the chance of
selection is the same for
every member of the
population
 Systematic Sampling

 Inthis sampling technique, a random sampling is made of

the first element for the sample, then a subsequent
elements are selected using a fixed or systematic interval
until the desired sample sized is reached.
 Systematic Sampling

Example:
 After a random start, the researcher may
systematically select from a group of 100
students every third name appearing on the
list to be able tp get a sample of 33 students.
Stratified Random Sampling

 In
this sampling technique,
a target population is first
separated into mutually
exlusive, homogenous
segements (strata), and The samples selected
then a simple random from the various strata
sample is selected from are then combined into a
each segment (stratum). simple sample.
 Stratified Random Sampling

 Example: If there are 1,200 JHS students, here are

the steps to follow
 Determine the sample size
 Get the population of the JHS students per Grade
level
 Divide each number of students per level by the
population and then multiply it by the determined
sample size.
 Convenience Sampling

 Underthis sampling, the sample elements are selected

from the population based on their availability, on the
convenience of the researcher.
 Purposive Sampling

 Under this sampling, the

sample elements are
selected from the target
population on the basis of
their fit with the purposes of
the study and specific
criteria.
 Purposive Sampling

 Example:
 You want to conduct a study on why Grade 11
students choose the TVL Track over Academic Track
 Therefore, you find tour samples and ask a question
“Are you planning to go to College?”
 Those who will say “Yes” will not be included in the
study.
 Snowball Sampling

 Under this sampling, the

researcher identifies a key
informant about a research
interest and then ask the
respondent to refer or
identify another
respondent who can
participate in the study.
Data Gathering
Tools in Quantitative
Research
 Data Gathering

Data gathering is an essential process in

research as it is through the gathered data
that the problems identified in the study are
answered.
 Questionniare

 Questionnaire is a written series of questions that

respondents provide answers to a research study.
 Six (6) Steps in Designing a questionnaire:
1) Background
2) Questionnaire Conceptualization
3) Establish the validity of the questionnaire
4) Establish reliability of the quastionnaire
5) Pilot testing of the questionniare
6) Revise the questionnaire
 1. Background

 Do a basic research on the background of the

chosen variable or construct. Choose the
construct that you can use to craft the purpose
of the questionnaire.
 The term “construct” refers to the trait that you
like to evaluate or measure.
 2. Questionnaire Conceptualization

 Choose a response scale to use. This is how you

want your respondents to answer the questions
in your study.
 You can choose on the following response scale:
a) Likert Scale
b) Dichotomous question
c) Close questions
d) Rank-order scale questions
 3. Establish Validity of the
questionnaire
 Validity
is defined as the degree to which a test
measures what it claims to be measuring.
A questionnaire undergoes validation procedure
to make sure that it accurately measures what it
aims to do.
4. Establish the Reliability of the questionnaire

 Reliability indicates the accuracy or precision

of the measuring instrument.
 It refers to a condition where the instrument
process yields consistent responses over
repeated measurement.
5. Pilot Testing of the questionnaire

 Pilot testing a questionnaire is important

before you use it to cellect data.
 Through this process, you can identify questions
which are not clear to the participants or there
might be problems with the relevance of the
questionnaire of the current study.
6. Revise the questionnaire

 After identifying the problem areas in your

questionnaire, revise the instrument as needed
based on the feedback provided during the pilot
testing.
Planning Data
Analysis Using
Statistics
Purpose of data analysis plan

 The purpose of data analysis plan is to gather

information to find solutions to research questions.
 It may be used to:
 Describe data sets
 Determine the degree of relationship of variables
 Determine the differences between variables
 Predict outcomes
 Compare variables
Descriptive Data Analysis

a) Frequency and percentage

b) Mean
c) Median
d) Mode
Frequency and Percentage

 Frequency refers to number observations or cases.

 Percentage is the ratio of the frequency with
respect to the total number of cases

Where:
- percentage
f - frequency
n – number of observation
Mean

 Mean is the sum of the observed values of

distribution divided by the number of observations.

Where:
- mean
- sum of observations
n – number of observation
Median

Median is the midpoint of the distribution. It

represents the point in the data where 50% of
the values fall below that point 50% fall above
it.
 Steps:
 Arrange the items from lowest to highest
 Count the middle value
Mode

 Mode is the most frequently occuring value in the

set of observations.
 Inthe cases where the there is more than one
observation which is the highest but with equal
frequency, the distrubution if bimodal or
multimodal
Example

1. Find the median of the measurement

15, 20, 12, 26, 3, 30, 14
2. Consider these even numbers of numirical values.
Compute the median.
12, 15, 30, 32, 18, 22
3. The ages of fifteen persons assembled in a room are
as follows: 16, 18, 18, 25, 25, 25, 30, 34, 36, 38.
What is the Mode?
Example

1. Determine the percentage

FREQUENCY IN PLAYING MOBILE LEGENDS

Opinions of the respondents Frequency Percentag
(f) e
ALWAYS 134 1.

SOMETIMES 96 2.

NEVER 20 3.

Total 250
SCORES IN GENERAL PHYSICS I
QUARTER EXAM
GENES CHRONI HABAK
IS EXODUS CLES KUK
FIND
Scor
e Score Score Score 4.MEAN,
41 45 40 21 5.MEDIAN AND
49 45 39 30 6.MODE
48 48 35 22 OF THE GIVEN
46 45 35 33 DATA. SHOW YOUR
46 45 33 34 SOLUTION.
Example

1. Find the mean of the measurement

18, 26, 27, 29, 30
2. Find the mean of the following

Score in the National Achievement Test

(NAT)
90 95 87 96 110
102 95 87 96 117
115 96 95 91 95
Inferential
Statistics
Inferential Statistics

1) Testing the hypothesis

2) Chi-square test
3) Test of difference
1. Testing the Hypothesis

 Hypothesis testing is used to determine whether

the result of the data set is statistically significant.
 Statistically
significant means the relationship
between two or more variables is caused by
somthing other than by the random chance.
 Significant also means “probably true”.
Steps in Testing the Hypothesis

1) State the null hypothesis.

2) Choose the statistical test and perform the
calculation.
3) State the level of significance for the statistical
test.
4) Calculate the p-value.
5) Make the decision.
Choosing the Right
Statistical Test | Types &
Examples
PUBLISHED ON JANUARY 28, 2020 BY REBECCA BEVANS. REVISED ON
DECEMBER 5, 2022.
Statistical tests are used in
hypothesis testing. They can be used
to:

determine whether a predictor

variable has a statistically
significant relationship with an
outcome variable.
estimate the difference between
two or more groups.
 Statistical tests assume a null
hypothesis of no relationship or no
difference between groups. Then they
determine whether the observed data
fall outside of the range of values
predicted by the null hypothesis.
 What does a statistical test do?

 Statistical
tests work by calculating a test statistic – a
number that describes how much the relationship
between variables in your test differs from the null
hypothesis of no relationship.
 Itthen calculates a p value (probability value). The
p-value estimates how likely it is that you would see
the difference described by the test statistic if the null
hypothesis of no relationship were true.
When to perform a statistical test

 Youcan perform statistical tests on data

that have been collected in a
statistically valid manner – either
through an experiment, or through
observations made using probability
sampling methods.
For a statistical test to be valid, your sample size
needs to be large enough to approximate the true
distribution of the population being studied.
To determine which statistical test to use, you need
to know:
 whether your data meets certain assumptions.
 the types of variables that you’re dealing with.
Statistical assumptions

Statistical tests make some common assumptions

about the data they are testing:
 Independence of observations (a.k.a. no
autocorrelation): The observations/variables you
include in your test are not related (for example,
multiple measurements of a single test subject
are not independent, while measurements of
multiple different test subjects are independent).
 Homogeneity of variance: the variance
within each group being compared is similar
among all groups. If one group has much more
variation than others, it will limit the test’s
effectiveness.
 Normality of data: the data follows a normal
distribution (a.k.a. a bell curve). This
assumption applies only to quantitative data.
Choosing a parametric test:
regression, comparison, or
correlation

 Parametric tests usually have stricter requirements

than nonparametric tests and are able to make
stronger inferences from the data. They can only
be conducted with data that adheres to the
common assumptions of statistical tests.
 The most common types of parametric test include
regression tests, comparison tests, and correlation
tests.
Regression tests

Regression tests look for cause-

and-effect relationships. They
can be used to estimate the
effect of one or more continuous
variables on another variable.
Comparison tests

Comparison tests look for

differences among group means.
They can be used to test the effect
of a categorical variable on the
mean value of some other
characteristic.
 T-tests are used when comparing the
means of precisely two groups (e.g., the
average heights of men and women).
ANOVA and MANOVA tests are used
when comparing the means of more than
two groups (e.g., the average heights of
children, teenagers, and adults).
Correlation tests

 Correlation tests check whether variables

are related without hypothesizing a
cause-and-effect relationship.
 These can be used to test whether two
variables you want to use in (for
example) a multiple regression test are
autocorrelated.
Choosing a nonparametric test

 Non-parametric tests don’t make as

many assumptions about the data and
are useful when one or more of the
common statistical assumptions are
violated. However, the inferences they
make aren’t as strong as with parametric
tests.
Example:

Research topic:
Increased Sleep causes Higher Grades
1) State the null hypothesis
There is no significant
relationship between increased amount
of sleep and academic performance.
Example:

2) Choose the statistical test and perform the

calculation.
a) Chi-square test
b) Test of difference
Example:

3) State the level of significance for the statistical

test.
*The levels of significance frequently used
are:
a) 0.05
b) 0.01
c) 0.001
Example:

4) Calculate the p-value.

Chi-Square Tests

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 14.000a 9 .122

Likelihood Ratio 15.106 9 .088
Linear-by-Linear Association 1.931 1 .165
N of Valid Cases 7

a. 16 cells (100.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .00.
Example:

5) Make the decision.

Results Decision

 If the p-value is greater than

Accept the null hypothesis
the level of significance.

 If the p-value is less than the

Reject the null hypothesis
level of significance
Example:

5) Make the decision.

p-value = 0.122
p-value > 0.05
*Decision: Accept the null hypothesis
Type I and II Errors in Testing the Hypothesis

 Type I Error is committed when a researcher

rejected a null hypothesis when in fact it is true.

 Type II Error occurs when the data from the

sample produce results that accept the null
hypothesis when in fact it should be rejected.
Chi-square Test

 Chi-square test is the most frequent used

method of comparing proportions.
 It is used to compare the observed frequencies
of the responses with the expected frequencies.
Example

 Thefollowing are the results of the survey (n=315)

for Top 3 most used social media sites among
students:
Social Media Sites Frequency
Facebook 115
Twitter 98
instagram 102

Question: Are you going to accept or reject the

null hyppothesis?
 Test Statistics
Analysis Frequency

Chi-Square 1.505a

 Based on the analysis df 2

using spss software, the Asymp. Sig. .471
result is:
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have
p-value = 0.471
expected frequencies less
p-value > 0.05 than 5. The minimum
Decesion: Accept the null expected cell frequency is
hypothesis 105.0.
Test of Difference

 t-Test is used when you have a random sample

and you want to test if it is significantly different
from a population mean.
 This test can be used only if the background
assumptions are satisfied such as sample
observations
Example

1. Suppose we put people on diets “the fruit diet and

the bread diet”. Participants are randomly
assigned to either 7-days of eating exclusively
fruits or 7-days exclusively eating bread. At the
end of the week, we measure the weight gain of
each participant.
*The table on the next slide shows the weight gain of
each participant.
 Example

Type of
diet
Weight Gained

Fruit diet 3 4 4 4 5 6 6

Bread Diet 1 2 2 2 3 4 4
Example:

1)State the null hypothesis

There is no significant
relationship between the effectiveness
of the type of diet and weight gained.
Example:

2) Choose the statistical test and perform the

calculation.
a) Test of difference
Example:

3) State the level of significance for the statistical

test.
*The levels of significance frequently used
are:
a) 0.05
b) 0.01
c) 0.001
 Example:

4) Calculate the p-value.

Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence
Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error Interval of the
F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Difference
Lower Upper
Equal
variances .205 .653 5.861 48 .000 1.81250 .30923 1.19076 2.43424
assumed
Weight Gained Equal
variances
not 5.912 36.285 .000 1.81250 .30656 1.19093 2.43407
assumed
Example:

5) Make the decision.

p-value = 0.653
p-value > 0.05
*Decision: Accept the null hypothesis