PR2 E.

Experimental method
It is used to find the cause and effect of
STATISTICS COLLECTION OF relationships.
DATA
DATA
Secondary Data
►raw materials of Statistics
A. Journals and periodicals
►measurements or observations or
B. Newspapers
scores
C. Tables
D. Unpublished or published research
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA papers
1. Primary Data includes information E. Thesis or dissertations
collected from original source of data,
which is first hand in nature. DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

2. Secondary Data includes

information collected from published or
unpublished sources such as books,
newspapers, and theses.
Primary data can be obtained through...
A. Direct or Interview method
A person to person encounter between
the one soliciting inform action and the
one supplying the data. Solve the following;
B. Indirect or Questionnaire ►A researcher in USLT would like to
method make a survey in the school with a
population of 10,000 students with a
The researcher distributes the
margin of error of 5 percent.
questionnaire either by mail or hand
carry to the intended person and
collects them by the same process.
C. Observation method
The researcher obtained data pertaining
to behavior of an individual or
individuals at a group of the time
occurrence of a given situation.
D. Registration method
It uses important documents such as
the number of households, birth rates, ► A researcher would like to survey
death rates, and marriages that can be 1000 Senior High School students for
found in both private and government his study. If he wants to be 95% precise
offices. with the study, how many students are
to be considered?
 an equal chance of being selected in
the sample.
1. Simple Random Sampling
►is a method of sampling where each
member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected as a part of
the sample.
►The most common techniques are by
drawing lots (lottery method), using
printed tables of random numbers or
using numbers generated by
computers.
► Compute the margin of error to be
used if 300 sample units are required
for a population of 2, 400.

2. Systematic Sampling
►This process of selecting the sample
when units are obtained by drawing
every nth element of the population.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
-is a procedure or method of selecting a
sample from a population for a
statistical study or used to determine
the individuals or members of a sample. 3. Stratified Random Sampling
►The population is divided into groups
based on the homogeneity to avoid the
2 TYPES OF SAMPLING possibility of drawing samples whose
TECHNIQUES members come from one stratum.
► The distribution sampling units is
proportional to the total number of units
PROBABILITY SAMPLING in each stratum. The bigger the
► A sampling procedure of selecting a population, the more sample units are
sample size (n) from a universe (N) drawn, the lesser the population, the
such that each member of the less sample units.
population is given a non zero chance of
being included in the sample and all
possible combinations of size(n) have
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
►It is a sampling technique wherein not
all members of the population are given
equal chances to be selected at sample.
► This is otherwise known as Non
Random Sampling and sometimes
called subjective sampling.
1. Convenience Sampling
►The researcher conducts a study at his
convenient time, preferred place or
venue. He specifies the place and time
where he can gather his data
2. Quota Sampling
►a non random sampling in which the
researcher limits the number of his
samples based on the required number
4. Cluster Sampling of the subject under investigation

►Sometimes called area sampling

This is useful in selecting the sample
when heterogeneous groups occupy
blocks in a community or city.
►Divide the population area into
sections (or clusters) and randomly
select a few of those sections, and
finally, choose all the members from
the selected sections.
3. Purposive Sampling
►It is a nonrandom sampling of
choosing samples which is based on
certain criteria and rules laid down by
the researcher. This method is also
known as judgmental sampling.

5. Multi-stage Sampling
►This technique uses several stages or
phases in getting the samples from the
general population.
►This method is useful in conducting a
nationwide survey or any survey 4. Snowball Sampling
involving a large universe.
►is a non-probability sampling method
where a member of the sample is
chosen through referral of the other EXPERIMENTS or CLINICAL TRIALS
members of the sample. Titration
Extraction
In vivo (in the body)
In vitro (in the glass)

OBSERVING & RECORDING WELL-

DEFINED EVENTS
Example
5. Modal Instance Sampling Counting the number of business owners
who are depositing money in a certain bank
►is a method of non-probability sampling in a particular time of the day
where the members of the sample are
selected based on the typical, most
frequent observation or modal cases.
Administering surveys or
The purpose of modal instance sampling is questionnaire
to sample the most typical members of a
Example
population. The term modal comes from
the mode, which is the most common item Achievement test
in a set
Likert-type
Modal instance sampling: The term
“mode” in statistics refers to the most Semantic differential-type questionnaire
frequently occurring number. Therefore, in
this type of sampling, the researcher looks
SCALES
for the most frequent or typical member of
a population. This technique is used for Use to capture a respondent's reactions or
investigating the common beliefs of a responses to a given item.
society.

BINARY SCALE
► Nominal scale consisting of the binary
items that assume one of two possible
values.
Example:
Yes or No, True or False
Male or Female (gender)
Full-time or part-time (employment status)

DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES IN A

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
 GUTTMAN SCALE (Louis Guttman)
►It uses a series of items arranged in
increasing order of intensity of the concept
of interest, from least intense to most
intense.

LIKERT SCALE (Rensis Likert)

Worded statements to which respondents
can indicate their extent of agreement or
disagreement on a five-or seven-point STAPLE SCALE
scale.
►Uni-polar rating scale numbered from -n
to +n without a neutral or zero point
►Usually presented vertically with the
adjective in the middle, and respondents
are required to choose one.

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

►Composite or multi-item scale TYPES OF QUESTIONS IN
DEVELOPING THE STATEMENTS
► Respondents are typically asked to
indicate their opinions or feelings towards a
single statement using different pairs of
DICHOTOMOUS QUESTIONS
adjectives framed as polar opposites or two
extremes. two choices Example: Yes or No Like or
Dislike
OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
Usually answers the question “why”
Example:
Why is drug prevalent in the country?
CLOSED-QUESTIONS
Multiple choice
➤Consists of three or more mutually
exclusive questions
 -it is supposed to measure job satisfaction
not the employee’s performance.

TYPES OF VALIDITY

1.FACE VALIDITY
✓refers to the extent to which a test
appears to measure what is claims to
measure based on face value.
✓Face validity means the content of the
test is relevant and appropriate in its
CONSTANT SUM QUESTIONS
appearance.
Requires the respondents to enter numeric
✓It is the weakest and simplest form of
data expressing the importance allocated
validity.
to said option.
Example:
A researcher develops a questionnaire to
measure depression level in employees
working in private organizations.
Researcher's colleague then looks over the
questions and believe the questions is valid
purely on face value.

2.CONTENT VALIDITY
✓the extent to which the measurement
covers all aspects of the concept being
measured.
MEASUREMENT OF VALIDITY Example:
AND RELIABILITY
• A Physics exam should only cover all
WHAT IS VALIDITY? topics actually taught to students and not
unrelated material like English or Biology.
-Degree to which an instrument
measures what it intends to measure Example:
or how accurately a method measures
what it is intended to measure. A researcher aims to measure English
language ability of senior high school
FOR EXAMPLE: students. Then the researcher develops a
test which contains reading, writing and
•Thermometer is designed to measure
speaking components, but no listening
body temperature; it cannot be used to
component.
check blood pressure.
Listening is an essential aspect of language
-if thermometer is used to measure body
ability, so the test lacks content validity to
temperature, then we say that it is a valid
measure English language ability.
instrument. But if thermometer is used to
check blood pressure, then we say that it is
an invalid instrument.
3.CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY
•A test is designed to measure job
satisfaction.
✓Criterion validity evaluates how -Is the extent to which measures of the
accurately a test measures the outcome it same or similar constructs actually
was designed to measure. corresponds to each other.
A test has this type of validity if it is useful Example:
for predicting performance or behavior in
A researcher who wants to show the
another situation (past, present, or future).
convergent validity of a measure of self-
Example: esteem may want to also show a similar
construct, such as self-worth, confidence,
A researcher wants to know whether a
social skills, and self- appraisal which are
college entrance exam is able to predict
also related to self-esteem.
future academic performance of newly
enrolled students. Then Ist semester Grade
Point Average (GPA) can serve as the
*DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY
criterion variable, as it is an accepted
measure of academic performance. -It shows that two measures that are not
supposed to be related are in fact,
After completing Ist semester the
unrelated.
researcher can compare their college entry
exam scores with GPA. If the scores of the Example:
two tests are closed, then the college
entrance exam has criterion validity. Producing a scale that measures motivation
is not related to the scale that measures
*CONCURRENT VALIDTY self-belief.
-It is used when the scores of a test and the
criterion variables are obtained at the same
time. WHAT IS RELIABILITY?

-Score of new test correlates with another -Is the extent to which a research
test that is already considered valid. High instrument or research method consistently
correlation between new test and criterion has the same results if it is used in the
variable indicates existence of concurrent same situation or repeated occasions.
validity. -Reliability means research instrument or
research methods produce stable and
consistent results.
*PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
Example:
-It is used when the criterion variables are
measured after the scores of the test. If a person weighs themselves repeatedly,
the weight machine is expected to produce
Example: similar or the same reading each time.
A researcher examines how the results of a We can say that the weight machine is
job recruitment test can be used to predict reliable.
future performance of employees.

TYPES OF RELIABILITY
4.CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
1.STABILITY or TEST-RETEST
-It is a theoretical concept or idea that is
measurable. usually not directly -Test retest means performing a test on the
group of people at one time, performing the
For example, self-esteem, motivation, same test on the same group of people at
anxiety etc. the later time, then looking at test-retest
correlation between the two sets of scores.
*CONVERGENT VALIDITY
-The researcher uses this reliability test -It measures the consistency between two
when measuring something that he/she or more independent raters (observers) of
expect to stay constant in his/her sample. the same construct.

2.EQUIVALENCE or INTER-RATER Cronbach's Alpha (a)

Is the extent to which different observers is a measure used to assess the reliability,
are consistent with their judgments. or internal consistency, of a set of scale or
test.

3.INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
-It measures how well the items on a test or
survey is actually measuring what you want
it to measure.
-If all items on a test measure the same
construct or idea, then the test has internal
consistency reliability.
~Two methods are used for internal
consistency;

*SPLIT HALF
This involves splitting the items into two
halves and then both parts are given to one
group of students at the same time.
Example:
Split the questionnaire into two halves.
Questions on the even number are in one
half and the questions on the odd number
are in second half.
There should be strong correlation of two
sets, if the results of two halves are
different, it means low internal consistency.

*PARALLEL FORM RELIABILITY

-It measures the correlation between two
equivalent versions of a test.
It is used when you have two different
assessment tools or set of questions
designed to measure the same thing.
Example:
The same students take two different
versions of a test the they should get
similar results in both tests.

Internal Consistency Reliability

BASIC STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES IN
DATA ANALYSIS

BIVARIATE ANALYSIS
It is concerned with the analysis of two
variables at a time.
It aims to determine whether two
variables are related. Interpretation: Small Positive Correlation
It means looking for evidence that a
change in one variable is accompanied by a
change in another variable.
DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTIONNAIRE
 An instrument for collecting data
  It consists of a series of questions Step 4 – Establish the Reliability of the
that respondents provide answers to Questionnaire
a research study.
*Inter-Rater Reliability
Step 1 – Background
*Test-Retest Reliability
 Do basic research on the background
*Split-half Reliability
of the chosen variable or construct.
*Internal Consistency Reliability
 State the purpose and objective of
the questionnaire and the research Step 5 – Pilot Testing of the
questions as well. Questionnaire
Step 2 – Questionnaire  It can identify questions or
Conceptualization statements which are not clear to the
participants or there might be some
 Choose the response scale to use.
problems with the relevance of the
 Generate the items or questions of questionnaire to the current study.
the questionnaire based on the
Step 6 – Revise the Questionnaire
purpose and objectives of the
research study.  The best questionnaire is one that is
edited and refined towards producing
 Choose the types of questions in
clear questions arranged logically
developing the statements
and in sequential order.
Guidelines in Developing Questions
 The questionnaire should match with
-The questions should be clear, concise and the research objectives.
simple using minimum number of words.
PLANNING DATA COLLECTION
Avoid lengthy and confusing lay-out.
PROCEDURES
-Classify your questions under each
(Types of quantitative data collection
statement based on your problem
procedures)
statement.
OBSERVATION
-Questions should be consistent within the
needs of the study.  As a researcher, you have to prepare
a checklist using an appropriate
-Avoid sensitive or highly debatable
rating scales that may categorize the
questions.
behavior, attitude or attribute that
you are observing to answer the
questions posed in your study.
 Record your observation by using
Step 3 – Establish the Validity of the
checkmarks or cross marks on your
Questionnaire
checklist.
-A questionnaire undergoes a validation
procedure to make sure that it accurately
measures what it aims to do.
-A valid questionnaire helps to collect
reliable and accurate data
*Face Validity
*Content Validity
*Criterion-Related Validity (Concurrent &
Predictive)
QUESTIONNAIRE
*Construct Validity
  It can be standardized or researcher-
developed.

INTERVIEW
 Oral exchange of questions and
answers
 May be done face-to-face or through
focus group

There are 28 municipalities and 1 city in

the province of Cagayan. The largest of
these in terms of population size as of
2015 is Tuguegarao City with 153,502. It
is followed by the municipality of
Baggao with 82,782 and Solana with
82,502. Twenty-five other municipalities
posted a population size of more than
ten thousand people. The municipality
of Sta. Praxedes has the least
EXPERIMENTATION
population with 4,154.
 It allows the researcher to make
manipulations.
 It is usually done in the laboratories
where specimens are subjected to
some aspects of control of control to
find the cause and effect
relationship.

PRESENTING AND INTERPRETING

DATA IN TABULAR AND GRAPHICAL
FORMS
A GOOD graph…..
 shows that the x and y axis has a
heading and units are included
 figure number and title are usually
placed below the figure
 • Abstract
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results or findings
• Discussion or conclusion
• References

Composition of the final research

report
Final research report
• Putting all you have gathered and
presenting them in one final research
report
• Should include: The final research report puts together what has
been gathered in one article, presenting the analysis
• Title
and the main contributions of the research in the • based on the empirical data --- you
field. are expected to mention the insights
Discussion of Results that you have drawn from it.

Research Findings: Defined as... • your insight from the result will
comprise your “new” discovery; it
• gives clarification to the main points. will include the implications of the
• you confer your findings with the results.
statement of the problem. Conclusion: Writing an Effective
• use the past tense when presenting Conclusion
the results of the study. 1. Conclusions are intertwined with
Research Findings: the Introduction
Elements that have to be included - can be a good strategy.
1. Major findings of your study Example: Introduction:
–refers to the answers of your research Reproductive health education is one
questions or to the hypotheses area of research that should be tackled
–begin by pointing out the main results in schools. High school students should
be exposed to innovative ways of
2. Explanation of the meaning and disseminating and communicating
significance of your findings issues on reproductive health education.
–be able to comprehensively detail the gist Example: Conclusion
of your results along with its potential value
The high school student respondents
3. Relationship of your findings to are not fully aware and have little
previous similar researches knowledge in reproductive health
education on the following areas: social
–associate your findings with that of other
and gender related issues, family
studies with similar results.
planning and other clinical services.
4. Consideration of other explanations
2. Conclusions are inferences and
of your results
generalizations based upon the
–justification of your findings should be findings
inclined to show what you have discovered
Example: Based on a research study
rather than what you have proven.
on “Factors Affecting the Career Choices
Conclusion of the Study: of High School Students”, two
Includes the following... conclusions can be drawn from the
findings of the study:
• must emphasize and summarize the
main points discussed in the Conclusion 1: Males prefer technology-
research results and data analysis. based courses while females prefer
business-related courses.
• should appropriately answer the
specific questions raised at the Conclusion 2: There is a significant
beginning of the investigation. difference between the career choices of
male and female high school
• must be explained from specific to respondents.
general.
3. Conclusions should specifically
• must also explain how the study answer the questions posed in the
contributes to new knowledge or how “Statement of the Problem” of your
it provides a new understanding. research study.
Example 1:
If the profile of the respondents will be used 2. Recommendations for Future Research
to test for variation on other measures, Directions
here are some examples of possible
-it is also ideal to present and discuss
conclusions:
actions or off-shoots of your research for
Conclusion 1: Majority of the respondents further study of validation purposes.
are aged 12-16 and mostly are males
3. Recommendations to some
Conclusion 2: Respondents of the study Problems Discovered in the Research
are mostly Catholics. Study
Conclusion 3: Among the profile of the -may mention other studies that could be
respondents, age and gender are conducted in relation to your study
significantly related to achievement in
-may suggest other studies that would
Mathematics.
address the scope and limitations that you
Example 2: have mentioned
If the problems raised in a research study Suggested Elements to be Included
entitled “Reading Difficulties of First Year
1. Suggested course of action ---
High School Students” were:
mention possible ways for improvement
Problem 1: In what areas do the student
2. Prediction --- state possible causes and
respondents encounter difficulties in
effects that may arise as warranted by your
reading?
results.
Conclusion 1: The student respondents
3. Proposed solution to a problem --- be
had problems in the following areas of
able to draw out ideas that could lessen, if
English reading test: vocabulary, sentence
not totally resolve, an issue.
structure, and reading comprehension.
Problem 2: Is the profile of the student
respondents significantly related to their
reading difficulties?
Conclusion 2: Profile of the student
respondents such as gender and mental
ability are significantly related to the
reading difficulties of the student
respondents.
4. Conclusions should contain facts or
actual results from the inquiry or
research study.

Recommendation of the Study

• must include your suggestions to the
beneficiaries of your study.
• will comprise the application(s) of
your findings.
1. Policy Recommendations
- policy serves as a guideline in
promulgating certain regulations in various
sectors of society.