ADVANCED MESUREMENT

TECHNIQUIES

M.Ganesh karthikeyan,TRP

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 FLOW VISUALIZATION

 Fluid flow is complicated subject.

 Flow-measurement problems are not always
simple & precise.
 Lack of analytical relations to use for
calculation and data reduction.
 Flow may be altered due to inserted probes to
measure pressure, velocity and temperature
profiles.
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 BASIC OPTICAL EFFECTS USED FOR FLOW
VISUALIZATION

 Flow visualization by optical methods, does

not disturb the fluid stream.
 Used for precise flow
measurements.
 Consider the gas flow in a direction
perpendicular to figure (in Z direction)
 Incoming light ray is deflected through an
angle є, due to density gradients in the flow.
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Basic optical effects used for flow visualization

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 Deflection angle for small-density gradients is
given as
є = (λ/n1)(dn/dy)y=y1 = Lβ(dρ/dy)y=y1 ….. 1
L - Width of flow fluid
ρ - Local fluid density
ρs - Reference density
β - constant; for air β = 0.000292
Refraction index n = (1+ β (ρ/ρs))n1 ....... 2
n1 is refraction index outside the flow field.
n1 = 1

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 From (1) є α dρ/dy
 i.e Angular deflection of light ray є is
proportional to density gradient in the flow.
 This is the basic optical effect used for flow
visualization work.
 The deflection of the light ray is a measure of
average density gradient.

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 LIQUID-FLOW VISUALIZATION
 Dye can be added in the liquid to study the flow
phenomena.
 Hydrogen-bubble method also used.
 Fine wire placed in water, as one end of DC circuit to
electrolyze the water.
 Very small hydrogen bubbles are generated in the
liquid.
 Motion of the bubbles may be studied by illuminating
the flow.
 Variable input voltage from 10 to 250 v is provided
and rectified in the diode circuit.
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VOLTAGE PULSE CIRCUITS FOR HYDROGEN-
BUBBLE METHOD
VARIABLE INPUT VOLTAGE- 10 TO 250 V; DIODE CIRCUIT-RECTIFY
INPUT; RELAY-TO CHARGE AND DISCHARGE THE CAPACITOR

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 THE SHADOWGRAPH

 Used for direct viewing of flow phenomena.

 Imagine flow field with a density gradient in y
direction.
 The parallel light rays enter the test section as shown
in figure.
 In the regions where there is no density gradient, the
light rays will pass straight through test section with
no deflection.
 If density gradient exists the rays will be deflected.
 The rays will bunch together to form bright spots and
dark spots.
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 Illumination will depends on the light rays
dє/dy, and hence on d2ρ/dy2.
 Illumination on the screen dependent on 2 nd
derivative of the density.
 Shadow graph is very useful device.
 It can be viewed with naked eye and local
room lighting.

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SHADOWGRAPH FLOW-VISUALIZATION DEVICE

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SHADOWGRAPH OF FREE CONVECTION BOUNDARY LAYER ON
HORIZONTAL CYLINDER.
cylinder size indicated by white circle; dark area is boundary area of
wake; Halo at center due to refraction of light

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 Free-convection boundary layer on horizontal
electric hot plate is clearly viewed.
 It is visible because of density gradient due to
heating of air near hot surface.
 Local densities can’t be measured by
shadowgraph.
 It may be used to view turbulent flow regions,
to locate shock waves with high precision.

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 THE SCHILIEREN

 Density gradient is indicated by Schilieren.

 Light from a slit source ‘ab’ is collimated by lens
L1, focused at plane 1 in test section.
 After the light passes through lens L2, an inverted
image of the source is produced.
 L3 focuses the image of test section on screen at
plane 3.
 Light ray originating at point ‘a’ occupy a
different portion of various lenses from these
originating from point ‘b’.
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a) Details of Schlieren flow visualization
b) Details of knife edge
1-image plane, 2-focal plane, 3-screen plane
L1,L2,L3-lenses

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 The region in which these rays overlap are
shown in figure.
 All rays pass through image plane in the test
section and source image plane b’a’.
 An image of test section is uniformly
illuminated on the screen at d’c’.
 If test section is completely uniform in density,
light rays appears as shown in figure. Light ray
originating at point ‘c’ is deflected by the same
amount as rays originating at point ‘d’.

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 If we introduce an obstruction at plane b’a’, it
uniformly reduce the illumination on the
screen.
 Reduction in illumination α amount of area
b’a’ is intercepted.
 If density gradients exists at test section focal
plane cd, light rays originating in this plane no
longer fill the image plane b’a’ completely.

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 If an obstruction is placed at plane b’a’, it will
intercept more light.
 It results in light and dark regions on the
screen at plane 3.
 Obstruction is called knife edge.
 Resultant variation in illumination on the
screen is called Schilieren effect.

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 Total height of source = y

Height of unintercepted portion = y 1

Illumination on the screen I α y1
 If Є is angular deflection,
then vertical deflection ∆y = f2Є ………..1
Where f2 is focal length of lens L2.
 Due to this deflection, there is fractional
change in illumination on the screen.

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 Contrast at any point on the screen is the ratio of
fractional change in illumination to general
illumination.

Contrast c = ∆I/I = ∆y/y1 = f2Є/y1 ………2

Angular deflection given by Є = (Lβ/ρs)(dρ/dy)

Now contrast c = (f2Lβ/y1 ρs) (dρ/dy) ……….3
 Thus c α dρ/dy.

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 i.e Contrast on the screen is proportional to the
density gradient in the flow.
 Contrast may be increased by reducing the distance
y1 .
 i.e by intercepting more light at the source image
plane; but general illumination also reduced.
 Contrast may not be increased indefinitely and a
compromise must be accepted.
 Schilieren photographs are used for location of shock
waves and complicated boundary-layer phenomena in
supersonic flow systems.

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SCHLIEREN PHOTOGRAPH OF HEATED WAKE FROM
ELECTRIC SOLDERING IRON

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 THE INTERFEROMETER [MACH-
ZEHNDER INTERFEROMETER]
 It is most precise instrument for flow-visualization.

Light source is collimated through lens L1 onto the
splitter plate S1.

S1 permits half of light transmitted to mirror M 2 and
another half to mirror M1.
 Beam 1 passes through the test section.
 Beam 2 travels an alternative path of equal length.

Two beams are brought together by splitter plate S 2
and focused on the screen.

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 If the two beams travel paths of different optical
length, they will be out of phase and interfere when
they are joined at S2.
 Optical length may differ due to geometry of the
system or refractive properties of any element.
 There will be alternative bright and dark regions
called fringes.

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SCHEMATIC OF MACH-ZEHNDER INTERFEROMETER
S1,S2-Splitter plates, M1,M2- Mirrors, L1,L2-Lenses

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 Number of fringes will be a function of
difference in optical path lengths.
 For a difference in path lengths of one
wavelength there will be one fringe.
 The interferometer is used to obtain direct
measurement of density variations in test
sections.
 If there is density difference in test section
from beam 2 there will be change in refractive
properties of fluid medium.
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 If there is same optical properties for medium
in test section & medium in beam 2, then there
will be no fringe shifts except those resulting
from geometric arrangement of apparatus.
 These fringe shifts may be neutralized by
appropriate movements of mirrors and splitter
plates.

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 Appearance of fringes on screen may be directly
related to change in density.
 Change in optical path ∆L = L (n-n )
o

 L is thickness of flow field

 (n-n ) is change in refractive index.

o

 ∆L may also given as

∆L = βL ((ρ-ρ )/ρ )
o s


ρs - Reference density of standard conditions.

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 The number of fringe shifts N is then given by
N = ∆L/λ = (βL/λ)((ρ-ρ )/ρ )
o s

 Where λ is wavelength of the light.

 (ρ-ρ ) – change in density from zero-fringe
o

condition.

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Interferometer photograph of interaction of free-convection boundary
layers on 3 heated cylinders

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 THE LASER DOPPLER ANEMOMETER
(LDA)
 Used for precise quantitative measurement of
high frequency turbulence fluctuations.
 It offers non disturbance of the flow.
 Laser beam is focused on small volume
element through lens L1.
 For the functioning of this device, flow should
contain small particles to scatter the light.
 Ordinary tape water contains enough
impurities to scatter incident beam.
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 Additional lenses L2 & L3 are positioned to
receive the laser beam.
 Some portion of the beam is scattered through
lens L2.
 Scattered light experiences Doppler shift in
frequency, which is proportional to flow
velocity.
 Unscattered portion of the beam is reduced in
intensity by the neutral density filter.
 It is recombined with scattered beam through
beam splitter.

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Laser-Anemometer flow-measurement system

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 Direct and scattered beams travel the same
optical path, so that an interference will be
observed at the photo multiplier tube that is
proportional to frequency shift.
 This shift gives an indication of flow velocity.
 A spectrum analyzer may be used to determine
velocity in steady laminar flow, mean velocity
& turbulence intensity in turbulent flow.

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 In figure b) laser beam is split outside the test
section, two beams can be focused on the
exact point to be studied in the flow field.
 The aperture acts as a shield for non coherent
scattered light and background light.

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 Laser beam split in outside the test section
Two beams are focused on the point of study

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 Figure c) is further modification of the system
and allows for easy adjustment of path.
 He-Ne gas lasers are most often employed for
LDA work.
 It operates at a λ = 632.8 nm.
 LDA measures the velocity of scattering
particles.
 Laser anemometers can measure more than
one velocity. But optics and electronics signal
processing techniques become quite complex
and expensive.

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Easy adjustment of path length is possible

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 SMOKE METHODS

 Very simple method of flow visualization.

 Utilizes the injection of smoke traces in a gas
stream to follow stream lines.
 Used to verify an analytical calculation.
 Smoke is used to view the complicated
secondary flow patterns in a channel.

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 Smoke filaments represents stream lines of
flow.
 Individual smoke particles be sufficiently
small mass.
 Then only they will be carried along freely at
the low velocity.
 Filtered smoke from burning rotten wood or
cigars is generally suitable for smoke studies.

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Smoke photograph (a) Actual secondary flow effects (b)
Theoretical analysis of flow stream lines.

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 Smoke can be obtained from titanium tetra
chloride by reacting with moisture in air to
form hydrochloric acid and titanium oxide.
 This is corrosive, but can be used for low
speed flow measurements.
 One of the best fuels for producing nontoxic,
non corrosive, dense smoke is Fog juice.
 It contains petroleum hydrocarbon.

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 HEAT FLUX METERS

 Direct measurement of heat flux is possible by SLUG

SENSOR.
 A slug of high thermal conductivity is installed in the
wall.
 It is having a surrounding layer of insulation.
 When the slug is subjected to a heat flux at the surface,
its T will rise.
 It is an indication of the magnitude of the heat flux.

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SLUG TYPE HEAT-FLUX METER

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 If T of the slug remains uniform at any instant of time,
the transient – energy balance
q/A = (mc/A)(dTs/dt)-u(Ts-Tu)
 q/A – imposed heat flux
 m – mass of the slug
 c – Specific heat of slug
 u – Coefficient expressing the conduction loss to
surrounding wall

Ts – temperature of the slug

Tw – temperature of wall
 Equation gives the slug T as a function of heat flux and
properties of the slug.

Thus measurement of Ts may be taken as an indication
of the heat flux.
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 DISADVANTAGES

 At very high heat fluxes, the T of the slug may not

remain uniform.
 Complicated analysis must be employed to calculate
heat flux from T measurements.
 Presence of sensor alters the T profile in the wall.
 T at sensor location is higher than it might have been
otherwise.
 Slug sensor is clearly adapted only to transient
measurements.
 As soon as the wall reaches equilibrium, the T of slug
will no longer be indicative of heat flux.

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 GARDON HEAT-FLUX METER

 A thin constantan disk is mounted to a copper heat

sink.
 Heat sink installed in the wall material.
 Small copper wire is attached to the center of the disk.
 Another wire connected to copper sink.
 Two wires of copper-constantan thermocouple used to
measure T difference between center of disk and sides.
 A heat-flux incident on the disk is absorbed and
conducted radially outward.

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GARDON HEAT-FLUX METER

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 T difference is created, which is sensed by
thermocouple.
 Heat fluxes over a range of 5x10 4 to 10⁶
Btu/h.ft2 can be measured.
 Increased sensitivity can be obtained with
copper disc along with doped bismuth-
telluride center connection.

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 HEAT FLUX METER OPERATING ON
CONDUCTION PRINCIPLE
 It is a very versatile heat flux meter.
 Measurement of T drop across thin insulating
material of about 7.6 μm thickness.
 T drop is proportional to heat conducted
through the material in accordance with
Fourier’s law.
 Butt-bonding process is used which allows a
distortion free joining of copper-constantan on
both sides of material.
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HEAT-FLUX METER OPERATING ON CONDUCTION
PRINCIPLE

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THIN FILM-LAYERED HEAT FLUX METER

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ASSEMBLED MICROFOIL HEAT-FLUX METERS

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 Number of junctions are connected in series to
produce thermopile.
 40 junctions may be produced within a space
of about 1 in2.
 The junctions are covered with protective
coating.
 Total thickness of heat flux meter never more
than 0.3 mm.

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 TELEMETRY SYSTEMS

 Used to collect data from various remote locations

and transfer the information to centralized
installation.
 A series of electrical sensors are used.
 The various sensor output readings are scanned at
fixed intervals.
 They are multiplexed before transmitting through
a suitable link to the data-collection centre.
 In the receiver, the data is reconstructed,
demultiplexed and distributed to individual
display and recording systems.
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FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

 The transmission band width is divided

between various sensors.
 Each channel has associated with it a sub
carrier frequency which is modulated by
information from that channel.
 The output of sensor 1 modulates a fixed
carrier so that information from sensor 1 is
restricted to the band of frequencies from 32 to
36 kHz.
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TELEMETRY: a) FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING

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FM/FM ANALOG TELEMETRY SYSTEM

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 Information from sensor 2 is restricted to the
band of frequencies from 28 to 32 kHz.
 The information from all sensors is thus
distributed in the band of frequencies from 20
to 36 kHz.
 In the receiver, the bands corresponding to the
individual channels are separated out by band-
pass filters.
 The signals are retrieved from various bands
by demodulation and displayed separately.

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 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

 The signals from various sensors are sampled

sequentially and the samples are converted to
suitable formats.
 The process of scanning produces a train of
pulses, with a samples corresponding to a
particular sensor repeating at regular intervals.
 Each sensor output thus receives a time slot in the
time pulse sequence.
 The individual amplitudes corresponding to the
sample values can be sent as such or after further
conversion.
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TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

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VARIOUS PULSE MODULATION TECHNIQUES

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 In pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), the sample
values of the sensors are directly sent through the
transmission medium to the receiver without any
further change.
 The amplitude information in PAM can be
converted to equivalent pulse durations. This is
called as pulse duration modulation (PDM).
 Here all pulses start at the same relative point.

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 Duration of pulse is α to sampled value of signal.
 PDM is far less susceptible to noise than PAM.
 In pulse position modulation (PPM), two pulses
corresponding to the beginning and end of
duration is transmitted.
 PPM is superior to PDM and PAM, since it is not
susceptible to amplitude or shape distortion.
 For higher immunity against interferences, the
pulse duration can be coded.

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 The codes can be sent to receiver.
 This is called pulse code modulation (PCM).
 It is most efficient and most practical coding
technique today.
 PCM requires wide bandwidth as required for
PPM.
 PCM is one of the most popular schemes used for
digital transmission of analog data.

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