CHAPTER 4

FORCE AND MOTION (DYNAMICS)

Dynamics is the branch of mechanics that is concerned with motion of bodies in relation to the
physical factors that affect them; force, mass, momentum and energy. Dynamics also deals with
the study of equilibrium of bodies.

4.1. Newton’s laws of motion

The relationship between forces and produced acceleration is an aspect of dynamics. Sir Isaac
Newton (1642-1727) studied the concept of motion in detail and formulated them in three laws,
named after him.
4.1.1 First law (The law of inertia)
This law states “Every body continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise”
The first law can be stated mathematically as

∑ 𝐹 = 0, then { 𝑣 = 0
𝑣 = 𝑐𝑠𝑡
Newton’s first law is sometimes called the law of inertia. According to this law, a body does not
change its state of rest or uniform motion, unless an external force compels it to change that state.
Inertia is the property of a body by which it tends to resist change in its state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line.
First law helps us to define force. According to this law, a force is required to change the state of
rest or uniform motion of a body along a straight line. Hence, a force is that which changes or
tends to change the state of rest or uniform motion of a body along a straight line.
4.1.2 Second law
From the first law it is clear that a force changes the state of rest of a body or changes its velocity.
Thus, force produces acceleration. The second law gives us the relationship between force and
acceleration. It states “The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the force applied
and takes place in the direction of the force” or “The acceleration of a body is parallel and directly
proportional to the net force acting on the body, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the
body. Mathematically,
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Momentum is defined as the product of mass and its linear velocity given by:
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
Thus,
 𝑑𝑝
𝐹∝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝 𝑑(𝑚𝑣) 𝑑𝑣
𝐹= = =𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
Since = 𝑎, then
𝑑𝑡

𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
The S.I unit of a force is Newton (N). It is that force which produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 on
a mass of 1 kg.
4.1.3 Third law
From Newton’s second law it is clear that when a body is in accelerated motion there is a force
acting on it. This force is due to some other bodies acting on the first one. Newton’s third law gives
a relation between those forces. When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body
at the same time exerts an equal force on the first one. It is impossible to have a single isolated
force.
Newton’s third law states “To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.”

Figure 4.1 The force exerted by body 1 on body 2 is equal in magnitude but opposite to the force
exerted by body 2 on body 1
i.e.
Action = − Reaction
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗2
𝐹1 = −𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 | = |𝐹
|𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 |

Even though action and reaction are equal and opposite, they do not cancel each other as they act
on two different bodies.
4.2. Some forces in nature
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
4.2.1 Weight (𝑾
The weight of a body is the force of gravity acting on the body. This force is directed toward the
center of the Earth and is primarily due to an attraction between the body and the Earth.
Mathematically, it is given by:
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
where 𝑚 is the mass of the body, and 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity.
In vector notation, the weight of the of the body is given by:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑔⃗
𝑊
⃗⃗⃗)
4.2.2 Normal force (𝑵

Consider a block of weight 𝑊 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ placed on a table as shown in the figure 4.2. When this block rests
a table, the table exerts an upward force (reaction), called Normal force (𝑁 ⃗⃗ ). The normal force
prevents the block from falling through the table, and can have any value up to the point of
breaking the table.

⃗⃗ perpendicular to the table

Figure 4.2 A block resting on a table experiences a normal force 𝑁
Therefore, we conclude that
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑁
𝑊 ⃗⃗

and
⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = |𝑁
|𝑊 ⃗⃗|

⃗⃗)
4.2.3 Tension (𝑻
When a rope (or a cord, cable, etc) is attached to a body and pulled, the rope is said to be in tension.
The rope’s function is to transfer force between two bodies. The tension in the rope is defined as
the force that the rope exerts on the body. A rope is considered to be massless (i.e., its mass is
negligible compared to the body’s mass) and non-stretchable. This force is denoted usually by the
symbol 𝑇⃗⃗, see figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 When a rope is under the tension, it pulls the block and the hand with a force of
magnitude T
⃗⃗)
4.2.4 Friction (𝒇

If we slide or try to slide a body over a surface the motion is resisted by a bonding between the
body and the surface. This resistance is represented by a single force and is called friction. Friction
is the force that opposes the relative sliding motion of two surfaces in contact with one another.
The force of friction is parallel to the surface and opposite to the direction of intended motion.
There are normally two types of friction: Static friction and kinetic friction.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒔 )
(a) Static friction (𝒇

It is the force of friction between two surfaces, before relative motion actually starts. Its magnitude
is always equal to the external force which tends to cause relative motion. As the external force
which tries to produce relative motion increases, the force of friction also increases, till relative
motion just starts.

Figure 4.4 The block resting on the horizontal table. The forces acting on the bock are weight,
normal, applied force and static friction
The laws of static friction are:
➢ The magnitude of static friction is independent of the area.
➢ The magnitude of static friction is directly proportional to the normal force (reaction). That is:
𝑓𝑠 ∝ 𝑁
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑘𝑁
where 𝑘 is the proportionality constant which is called the coefficient of static friction which
is denoted by 𝜇𝑠 . Then:
𝑓𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒌 )
(b) Kinetic friction (𝒇

Kinetic friction between two surfaces in contact is the force of friction which calls into play when
there is relative motion between the surfaces. Kinetic friction is always less than static friction.

Figure 4.5 The block moving on the horizontal table. The forces acting on the bock are weight,
normal, applied force and kinetic friction
The laws of kinetic friction are:
➢ The kinetic friction has a constant value which depends on the nature of the two surfaces in
contact.
➢ The kinetic friction is directly proportional the normal force. That is
𝑓𝑘 ∝ 𝑁
𝑓𝑘 = 𝑘𝑁
where 𝑘 is the proportionality constant which is called the coefficient of kinetic friction which
is denoted by 𝜇𝑘 . Then:
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
Since 𝑓𝑘 < 𝑓𝑠 , then 𝜇𝑘 < 𝜇𝑠
The coefficients of static and kinetic friction depend on the two surfaces in contact.

(c) Graph between applied force and force of friction

Figure 4.6 shows the graph of the variation of the force of friction with the applied force.

Figure 4.6 The graph of the variation of the force of friction with the applied force
(d) Some approximated values of coefficients 𝝁𝒔 and 𝝁𝒌
The values of the dimensionless coefficients 𝜇𝑠 and 𝜇𝑘 depend on the nature of the surfaces, not
on their areas. Typical values of the coefficients lie in the range 0.05 ≤ 𝜇 ≤ 1.5. Table 4.1 lists
some reported values.

Table 4.1 Some approximate values of coefficients of friction

4.3 Motion of a body in a lift

Consider a body of mass m resting on a lift as shown in figure 4.7. The forces acting on the body
are:
➢ The weight mg of the body acting vertically downwards.
➢ The reaction N acting vertically upwards.
𝑁

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
Figure 4.7 A body mass m on a lift. The forces acting on the body are weight mg acting vertically
downwards and reaction N acting vertically upwards
We have the following conditions:
4.3.1 Lift at rest
When the lift is stationary, by Newton’s second of motion, the net force is given by:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎

Since 𝑎 = 0, then:
𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
In this case, the normal force (apparent weight) equals the actual weight of the body.
4.3.2 Lift moving upward or downward with constant velocity
When the lift is moving either up or down with constant velocity, by Newton’s second of motion,
the net force is given by:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎

Since 𝑎 = 0, then:
𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
In this case, the normal force (apparent weight) equals the actual weight of the body.
4.3.3 Lift moving upward with constant acceleration a
When the lift moves up with a constant acceleration a, by Newton’s second of motion, the net
force is given by:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚(𝑔 + 𝑎)
In this case, the normal force (apparent weight) is greater than the actual weight of the body.
4.3.4 Lift moving downward with constant acceleration a
When the lift moves down with a constant acceleration a, by Newton’s second of motion, the net
force is given by:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎
 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎)
In this case, the normal force (apparent weight) is less than the actual weight of the body
4.3.5 Lift moving upward with constant acceleration 𝒂 = 𝒈
When the lift moves up with a constant acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑔, by Newton’s second of motion, the
net force is given by:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑔 = 2𝑚𝑔
In this case, the normal force (apparent weight) is twice the actual weight of the body.
4.3.6 Lift moving downward with constant acceleration 𝒂 = 𝒈
When the lift moves down with a constant acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑔, by Newton’s second of motion, the
net force is given by:

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑚𝑔 − 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
In this case, the normal force (apparent weight) equals zero. In other words, there is no reaction,
and as such the body is apparently weightless.
If the body is suspended from a spring balance attached to the ceiling of a lift which is moving up
or down with acceleration 𝑎, there is an apparent change in the reading.
Apparent weight (𝑁) = 𝑚(𝑔 ± 𝑎)

4.4. Forces in equilibrium

Forces not only pull or push but also have a turning effect or moment about an axis, e.g. forces
that keep bridges stationary and also leaning against the wall on a ladder.
An object is said to be in equilibrium if it is not accelerating under the action of concurrent
(coplanar) forces.
4.4.1 Conditions for equilibrium
The conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of coplanar forces are as follows:
(1) The vector sum of the external forces on the rigid body must be zero.
∑𝐹 = 0
In horizontal direction, we have:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
And in the vertical direction, we have:
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
When this condition is satisfied we say that the body is in translational equilibrium (𝑎 = 0).
(2) The sum of external torques on the rigid body be equal to zero.
∑𝜏 = 0
When this condition is satisfied we say that the body is in rotational equilibrium (𝛼 = 0).
4.4.2 Moments and equilibrium
The magnitude of the moment (torque) of a force F about a fixed point O, is defined as the product
of the force F and the perpendicular distance r from O to the line of action of a force.
Moment (or torque) = Force × perpendicular distance from axis
𝜏 = 𝐹𝑟
The S.I unit of torque is N.m
F

O
Figure 4.8 Moment (or torque) 𝜏 of the force = Force F × perpendicular distance r from O to the
line of action of a force
The resultant of a number of forces in equilibrium is zero. So, the moment of the resultant about
any point is zero. It therefore follows that the algebraic sum of the moments of all about any point
is zero when those forces are in equilibrium. This means that the total clockwise moment of the
forces about any point equals the total anticlockwise moment of the forces about the same point.
This is known as the principle of moments.

∑↷𝜏=∑↶𝜏
4.4.3 Couple and its torque
Two equal and opposite forces whose lines of action do not coincide are said to form a couple.
The two forces always have a turning effect or moment, called a torque given by:
Moment (or torque) = One force × perpendicular distance between forces

Figure 4.9 The moment of a couple is the product of one of the forces F and the arm of the couple
𝑎
4.4.4 Centre of gravity
It has been established, since long, that every particle of the body is attracted by the earth towards
its centre. The force of attraction, which is proportional to the mass of the particle, acts vertically
downwards and is known as the weight of the body. As the distance between different particles of
the body and the centre of the earth is the same, therefore these forces may be taken to act along
parallel lines.
A point may be found out in a body, through which the resultant of all such parallel forces act.
This point, through which the whole weight of the body acts, irrespective of its position, is known
as the centre of gravity.

EXERCISES
1. The value of g at the surface of the Earth is 9.8 N/kg and on the surface of Venus the magnitude
of g is 8.6N/kg. A cosmonaut has a weight of 588 N on the surface of the Earth, what will be
her mass and weight on the surface of Venus? [m=60kg; W=516N]
2. A person in a kayak starts paddling, and it accelerates from 0 to 0.8 mile/hour in a distance of
0.8km. If the combined mass of the person and the kayak is 80kg, what is the magnitude of the
net force acting on the kayak? [𝟔. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑵]
3. A tension of 6 kN is experienced by the elevator cable of an elevator moving upwards. If the
elevator starts from rest and attains a speed of 4 m/s in 2 seconds, what is the mass of the
elevator? [508 kg]
4. An elevator is moving with an acceleration of 2.5 m/s2. Find the mass of a 80kg man in the
elevator if the elevator is
(a) moving up. [100kg]
(b) moving down. [60kg]
5. A rocket of mass 5 × 104 kg is in flight. Its thrust is directed at an angle of 60 degrees above
the horizontal and has a magnitude of 7 × 105 N. Find the magnitude and direction of the
rocket’s acceleration. Give the direction as an angle above the horizontal. [7 m/s2; 𝟏𝟖°]
6. A bullet of mass 10 g moving with velocity 100 m/s strikes a wooden plank of thickness 50
cm, emerges with a velocity 30 m/s. Find the resistance offered by the plank, assuming it
uniform. [91 N]
7. A driver of a three-wheeler moving with a speed of 36 km/h sees a child standing in the middle
of the road and brings his vehicle to rest in 4 seconds just in time to save the child. What is the
average retarding force on the vehicle? The mass of the three-wheeler and the driver is 465 kg.
[1162.5 N]
8. A 10g object is moving in a plane. The x and y coordinates of the object are given by
x(t)=2t3−t2 and y(t)=4t3+2t2. Find the net force acting on the object at t=2s. [0.56N]
9. Two masses of 5 kg and 3 kg are suspended with help of massless inextensible string as shown
in figure 4.10. Calculate the tensions 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 when the system is going upwards with
acceleration 2 m/s2. [𝑻𝟏 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟒 𝑵; 𝑻𝟏 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟒 𝑵]

Figure 4.10 See exercise 9

10. A car of mass 1 tone is brought to rest from a speed of 40 m/s in a distance of 80 m. Find the
braking force of the car assuming that it is constant and that there is a constant resistance to
motion of 100 N. [9900 N]
11. A car is moving along a level road at a speed of 72 km/h. Find the shortest distance in which
the car can be stopped by switching off the engine. Coefficient of kinetic friction between the
road and the tyre is 0.4. Use g=10 m/s2. [50 m]
12. A force of 98 N is just required to move a mass of 45 kg on a rough horizontal surface. Find
the coefficient of friction and the angle of friction. [0.22; 12.40]
13. A particle of mass 5 kg slides down a smooth plane inclined at 30° to the horizontal. Find the
acceleration of the particle and the reaction between the particle and the plane.
𝟏 𝟓𝒈√𝟑
[𝒂 = 𝟐 𝒈 𝒎𝒔−𝟐 ; 𝑹 = 𝑵]
𝟐

14. A particle of mass 5 kg is pulled along a rough horizontal surface by a string which is inclined
1
at 60° to the horizontal. If the acceleration of the particle is 3 𝑔 𝑚𝑠 −2 and the coefficient of
2
friction between the particle and the plane is , find the tension in the string.
3
[𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎𝒈√𝟑(𝟐 − √𝟑) N]

15. Calculate the force required to pull a train of mass 200 tons up an incline of 5° at a uniform
speed of 72 km/h. Coefficient of kinetic friction = 0.02. [𝟐. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵]

16. A hotel guest starts to pull an armchair across a horizontal floor by exerting a force of 91 N
15°above the horizontal. The normal force exerted by the floor on the chair is 221 N up. The
acceleration of the chair is 0.076. Determine the mass of the chair and the coefficient of kinetic
fiction between the chair and the floor. [24.95 kg; 0.39]
17. Calculate the force required to pull a train of mass 200 tons up an incline of 50 at a uniform
speed of 72 km/h. Coefficient of friction = 0.02. [209900 N]
18. A block of mass m1 =4 kg lies on a frictionless inclined plane of angle 𝜃 =30◦. This block is
connected by a cord over a massless, frictionless pulley to a second block of mass m2 =6 kg
hanging vertically, as shown in figure 4.11.
(a) For each block, find the magnitude and direction of its acceleration.
(b)What is the magnitude of the tension in the cord?
(c) Repeat parts (a) and (b) after replacing each block by the other. [(a) For m1, a = 4m/s2
2
up the plane and for m2, a = 4m/s downwards. (b) The magnitude of the tension in both
cords is 36N, (c) For m1, a = 1m/s2 up the plane and for m2, a = 1m/s2 downwards. The
magnitude of the tension in both cords is also 36N]
 Figure 4.11 See exercise 18

19. A block is at rest on a rough inclined plane of angle 𝜃

(a) When the angle is increased until the block is on the verge of slipping at angle 𝜃 = 𝜃𝐶 , show
that the coefficient of static friction is given by
𝜇𝑆 = tan 𝜃𝐶
(b) If the block is slightly disturbed and moves down with constant speed, find the coefficient
of kinetic friction given that 𝜃 = 27°. [0.5]
20. Three objects are connected on the table as shown in the figure 4.12. The table is rough and
has a coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.35. The objects have masses of 4.00 kg, 1.00 kg, and
2.00 kg, as shown, and the pulleys are frictionless. Draw free-body diagrams of each of the
objects. Determine
(a) the acceleration of each object and their directions.
(b) the tensions in the two cord. [(a) 2.31 m/s/s (b)30.0 N; 24.2 N]

Figure 4.12 See exercise 20

21. Five forces acting on a particle are in equilibrium. Four of these are 2i+3j, 4i-7j, -5i+4j and i-
j. What is the fifth force? [-2i+j]
22. A force of 15 N is applied perpendicular to the edge of a door 80 cm wide as shown. Find the
moment of the force about the hinge. If this force is applied at an angle 60 0 to the edge of the
same door, as shown in figure 4.13, find the moment of this force. [16 Nm; 10.4 Nm]

Figure 4.13 See exercise 22

23. A uniform plank ABC of weight 30 N and 2 m long is supported at one end A and at a point B
1.4 m from A as shown in figure 4.14. Find the maximum weight W, that can be placed at C,
so that the plank does not topple. [20 N]

Figure 4.14 See exercise 23

24. A rod AB 2.5 m long is supported at A and B. The rod is carrying a point load of 5 kN at a
distance of 1 m from A. What are the reactions at A and B? [2 kN;3 kN]
25. A painter weighing 900N stands on a massless plank 5m long that is supported at each end by
a step ladder. If he stands 1m from one end of the plank, what force is exerted by each step
ladder? [F1=180N; F2=720N]
26. A beam AB of length 1 m is supported horizontally at A and B. A weight of 500 N is attached
at C. If the support at A cannot bear a pressure more than 300 N, find the distance of C from
A, when the support A is about to fail. [0.4 m]
27. Two like parallel forces of 10 N and 30 N act at the ends of a rod 200 mm long. Find the
magnitude of the resultant force and the point where it acts. [40 N; 150 mm]
28. Find the magnitude of two like parallel forces acting at a distance of 240 mm, whose resultant
is 200 N and its line of action is at a distance of 60 mm from one of the forces.
[50 N; 150 N]
29. A block of mass m =21 kg hangs from three cords as shown in figure 4.15. Taking sin 𝜃 = 4/5,
cos 𝜃 =3/5, sin 𝜙 =5/13, and cos 𝜙 =12/13, find the tensions in the three cords. [𝑻𝟏 =
𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝑵; 𝑻𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎 𝑵; 𝑻𝟑 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑵]

Figure 4.15 See exercise 29

30. An electric light fixture weighing 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings Ac and BC. The
string AC is inclined at 60 0 to the horizontal and BC at 45 0 to the vertical as shown in figure
4.16. Determine the forces in strings AC and BC. [TAC=10.98 N; TBC=7.76 N]

Figure 4.16 See exercise 30

31. A light string ABCDE whose extremity A is fixed, has weights W1 and W2 attached to it at B
and C. It passes round a small smooth peg at D carrying a weight of 300 N at the free end E as
shown in figure 4.17. If the system is in equilibrium, find the
(i) tensions in the portion AB, BC and CD. [TAB=173.2 N; TBC=150 N; TCD=300 N]
(ii) magnitudes of W1 and W2. [W1=86.6 N; W2=259.8 N]

Figure 4.17 See exercise 31

32. A small object of weight 10 N rests in equilibrium on a rough plane inclined at 30° to the
horizontal. Calculate the magnitude of the frictional force. Hence, find the coefficient of
√𝟑
friction [𝟓 𝑵; 𝟑 ]
33. A uniform ladder rests against a smooth vertical wall and on a rough horizontal ground. The
weight of the ladder is 10 N and it is just about to slip when inclined 30 0 to the vertical.
Calculate the coefficient of friction. [0.289]
34. A uniform ladder of mass m rests against a frictionless vertical wall at an angle of 60°. The
lower end rests on a flat surface where the coefficient of static friction is 𝜇𝑆 = 0.4. A student
with mass M=2m attempts to climb the ladder. What fraction of the length L of the ladder will
the student have reached when the ladder begins to slip? [0.789]
35. A ladder rests in limiting equilibrium against a rough vertical wall and with its foot on rough
1
horizontal ground, the coefficient of friction at both points of contact being 2. The ladder is
uniform and weighs 300 N. Find the angle 𝜃 which the ladder makes with the horizontal
ground. Find also the normal reactions at the wall and the ground. [𝟑𝟔. 𝟗°; 120 N;240 N]
 CHAPTER 5
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS
In this chapter, we discuss the linear momentum of a particle and the law of conservation of linear
momentum of a system of particles under certain conditions. We use this law and the conservation
of energy to analyze translational motion when particles collide.

5.1. Linear Momentum

The effect of a force is completely understood only if we know its mass and velocity. Linear
momentum denoted by 𝑝⃗, is the product of mass m and its linear velocity 𝑣⃗. It is a vector quantity,
given by:
𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗
In scalar notation, it is given by:
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
where m is the mass of the body and v is the velocity of the body.
The S.I units and the dimensions of linear momentum are 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −1 respectively.
In two dimensions, linear momentum is denoted as:

𝑝⃗ = 𝑝𝑥 ⃗𝑖 + 𝑝𝑦 ⃗𝑗

where 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 and 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣𝑦

5.2. Impulse and change of momentum

Sometimes a large force acts for a very short time and it may not be possible to measure either in
magnitude or the time for which the force acts. In such cases, the effect of the force is measured
by a quantity called impulse an such forces are called impulsive forces.
Impulsive force is a very great force acting for a very short time and it is measured as the rate of
change of momentum, e.g. kicking a ball, striking a nail with hammer, collision of bodies etc. An
impulsive force does not remain constant, but changes first from zero to maximum and then from
maximum to zero. In such case we measure the total effect of force.
The impulse denoted by 𝐽, is a measure of total effect of force. Impulse is measured as the product
of the impulsive force F and the time t for which it acts. Mathematically the magnitude of impulse
is given by:
𝐽 = 𝐹𝑡
Impulse is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as that of force.
Consider an impulsive force F which acts for a short interval of time 𝑡 on a body of mass 𝑚, thus
changing its velocity 𝑣𝑖 to 𝑣𝑓 . Let the body travel in a straight line with constant acceleration 𝑎.

By Newton’s second law, one obtains

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
where
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖
𝑎=
𝑡
Then:
𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑓
𝐹 = 𝑚( )
𝑡
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 )

𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖

𝐹𝑡 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = ∆𝑝

𝑱 = ∆𝒑
Hence, impulse of a force is equal to change in momentum of the body.
Using calculus, the impulse or change in momentum is given by:
𝑡𝑓

𝐽⃗ = ∫ 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = ∆𝑝⃗
𝑡𝑖

In the case of collision, figure 5.1 shows the graph of variation of a force F with time t.

Figure 5.1 Variation of a force F with time t during collision

In this case, the area under the graph represents the impulse of the force or change in momentum
of the body. That is
𝑡𝑓

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = 𝐽⃗ = ∫ 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = ∆𝑝⃗

𝑡𝑖

5.3. Conservation of linear momentum

If no net external force acts on a system of several particles, the total linear momentum of an
isolated system remains constant with time.
𝑝⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
This is the law of conservation of linear momentum which can be written as:

∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝𝑖 = ∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝𝑓

Consider two particles A and B of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 moving with velocities 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 along
straight line in the same direction or different direction.
After collision let them move with velocities 𝑣1 ′ and 𝑣2 ′ along straight line in the same direction
or different direction. Then, by law of conservation of linear momentum

∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝𝑖 = ∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝𝑓

𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 ′ + 𝑚2 𝑣2 ′
The following are some practical applications of the law of conservation of linear momentum:
➢ When a man jumps out of a boat on the shore, the boat is pushed slightly away from the shore.
➢ A person left on a frictionless surface can get away from it by blowing air out of his mouth or
by throwing some object in a direction opposite to the direction in which he wants to move.
➢ Recoiling of a bullet and gun system. When a shot is fired from a gun, the shot acquires a large
forward momentum due to the explosion of gun powder. Consequently, the gun gets an equal
momentum in the backward direction. This backward motion of the gun is called recoil of the
gun.
Let M be mass of the gun and m be the mass of the shot. Before firing both are at rest. Hence
the momentum of the system is zero. On firing, let v be the velocity of the shot and V be the
velocity of the gun.
Momentum after firing = Momentum before firing
𝑚𝑣 + 𝑀𝑉 = 0
𝑚𝑣 = −𝑀𝑉
The recoil velocity of the gun is then given by:
𝑚𝑣
𝑉=−
𝑀
The negative sign indicates that the gun is recoiling.
5.4. Collisions
If two particles in motion strike against each other or come close to each other such that the motion
of one of them or both of them changes abruptly, a collision is said to have taken place. The force
involved in a collision may be large, but it acts only for a short interval of time. We encounter
many examples of collision daily. The collision between two automobiles in a road accident is an
example of collision by physical contact.
5.4.1 Types of collisions
1. Elastic collision
Those collisions in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved are called elastic
collisions. In elastic collisions, the forces involved during interaction are of conservative nature.
A good example of elastic collision is collision between atomic particles.
2. Inelastic collision
Those collisions in which momentum of the system is conserved but kinetic energy is not
conserved are called inelastic collisions. Most of the collisions in everyday life are inelastic
collisions, for example collision between two billiard balls and also collision between two
automobiles on a road.
3. Perfectly inelastic collision
If in a collision two bodies stick together or move with same velocity after the collision, the
collision is said to be perfectly inelastic. The term ‘perfectly inelastic’ does not necessarily mean
that all the initial kinetic energy is lost, it implies that the loss in kinetic energy is as large as it can
be. Momentum is conserved in this case.
5.4.2. Elastic collision in one dimension.
If 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the masses of the bodies, 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are the velocities of the bodies before
collision, and 𝑣1 ′ and 𝑣2 ′ are the velocities of the bodies after collision, then by law of conservation
of linear momentum:
Total momentum before collision=Total momentum after collision

∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝𝑖 = ∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝𝑓

𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 ′ + 𝑚2 𝑣2 ′
For elastic collision:
Total kinetic energy before collision=Total kinetic energy after collision
1 1 1 2 1 2
𝑚1 𝑣1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 ′ + 𝑚2 𝑣2 ′
2 2 2 2
5.4.3 Inelastic collision in one dimension
For inelastic collision, the ration of the relative velocity after collision bears a constant ratio to the
relative velocity before collision and is opposite in sign, i.e.
𝑣1 ′ − 𝑣2 ′
= −𝑒
𝑣1 − 𝑣2
This constant 𝑒 is called the coefficient of restitution.
∴ 𝑣1 ′ − 𝑣2 ′ = −𝑒(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
If 𝑒 = 1, the collision is perfectly elastic.
If 𝑒 = 0, the collision is perfectly inelastic.
Generally, 𝑒 lies between zero and one. i.e.
0<𝑒<1
5.4.4 Collision in two dimensions
In this case, momentum is conserved in both the horizontal and vertical directions. Applying the
law of conservation of momentum yields:
In X-direction 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥 ′ + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥 ′
In Y-direction 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑦 ′ + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑦 ′

Assuming the collision to be elastic, then conservation of kinetic energy yields:

1 1 1 2 1 2
𝑚1 𝑣1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 ′ + 𝑚2 𝑣2 ′
2 2 2 2

EXERCISES
1. What constant force acting in the direction of motion of a particle of mass 2 kg will increase
its speed from 4 m/s to 20 m/s in 4 seconds? [8N]
2. A ball of mass 500 g is dropped from a height 1.5 m. It rebounds from the floor to reach a
height 1.2 m. Calculate the impulse that was given to the ball by the floor. [5.14 Ns]
3. A baseball has a mass of 0.2 kg and a speed of 30 m/s. After the baseball is struck by the batter,
its velocity changed to 50 m/s in the opposite direction. Find the
(a) change in momentum of the ball and the impulse of the strike. [−16 kg.m/s]
(b) average force exerted by the bat on the ball if remains in contact for 0.002 s. [−8000 N]
4. A 5-kg steel ball strikes a wall with a speed of 10 m/s at an angle θ = 60◦ with the wall’s surface
(see figure 5.2). The ball bounces off with the same speed and angle and is in contact with the
wall for 0.01 s.
(a) What is the change in momentum of the ball? [−86.6 kg.m/s (opposite to the x-axis)]
(b) What is the average force exerted on the ball by the wall? [-8660.3 N]

Figure 5.2 See exercise 4

5. The force-time graph for a ball struck by a bat is approximated as shown in figure 5.3. From
this graph, find
(a) the impulse delivered by the ball.
(b) the average force exerted on the ball.
(c) the maximum force exerted on the ball. [(a) 40 kg.m/s, (b) 20 N, (c) 30 N]

Figure 5.3 See exercise 5

6. Two trams have an equal mass 𝑚. Tram 1 is travelling with speed 15 m/s before striking tram
2, which was at rest. If the two trams lock together as the result of the collision,
(a) what is their common speed immediately after collision? [7.5 m/s]
(b) How much kinetic energy is lost during collision 𝑚 = 5 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠? [281250 J]
7. A cannon of mass 1.5 tons shoots a projectile of mass 100 kg with a horizontal speed 30 m/s.
If the cannon can recoil freely on a horizontal ground, what is its recoil speed just after shooting
the projectile? [-2 m/s]
8. A tennis ball of mass 40 g, moving with a speed of 5 m/s, has an elastic head-on collision with
a target ball of mass 60 g that was moving at a speed of 3 m/s. What is the velocity of each ball
after the collision if the two balls are moving:
(a) in the same direction horizontally? [v1’= 2.6 m/s; v2’= 4.6 m/s]
(b) in opposite direction horizontally? [ v1’= 3.4 m/s; v2’= -4.6 m/s]
9. Two identical smooth spheres of mass m collide directly head-on with speeds of 6 m/s and 2
1
m/s. If 𝑒 = 4 find the speeds of both spheres after impact. [3 m/s; 1 m/s]

10. A bullet of mass 10 g is fired horizontally with a speed v into a large wooden stationary block
of mass 2 kg that is suspended vertically by two cords. This arrangement is called the ballistic
pendulum. In a very short time, the bullet penetrates the pendulum and remains embedded. The
entire system starts to swing through a maximum height 10 cm. Find the value of v. [281.4m/s]
11. A bullet of mass 12 g and horizontal speed 70 m/s strikes a block of wood of mass 400 g and
instantly comes to rest with respect to the block. The block is suspended from the ceiling by
means of thin wires Calculate the height to which the block rises. Also estimate the amount of
kinetic energy lost. [0.212 m; 28.5 J]
12. Two balls of equal mass undergo perfectly elastic head-on collision. The initial velocity of the
ball travelling north is 0.5 m/s while the initial velocity for the ball travelling south is 0.2 m/s.
Find the final velocities for each ball. [v1’= 0.2 m/s south; v2’=0.5 m/s north]
13. A 2-ton truck is traveling east through an intersection at 2 m/s when it is hit simultaneously
from the side and the rear. One car is a 1-ton compact traveling north at 5 m/s. The other car
is a 1.5-ton midsize traveling east at 10 m/s. The three vehicles become entangled and slide at
one body. What is their speed and direction just after the collision? [4.3 m/s; 14.7◦]
14. A ball of mass 2.4 kg moving horizontally with a speed of 3m/s collides (not head-on) with a
second ball of 1.5 kg moving in the opposite direction with a speed 5m/s (see figure 5.4). The
first ball bounces off the second ball with an angle 600 and speed 1.5m/s. What is the final
velocity of the second ball? [2.5 m/s at an angle 60.80]

Figure 5.4 See exercise 14

15. A gas molecule having a speed of 300 m/s horizontally collides elastically with another
molecule of the same mass which is initially at rest. After collision the first molecule moves at
an angle of 30◦ to its initial direction. Find the speed of each molecule after collision and the
direction of the second molecule. [v1’= 260 m/s; v2’= 150 m/s; θ2= 60 0]
 CHAPTER 6
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
This chapter presents the specific definitions of work, energy and power, different from the
meanings in our everyday life. In this chapter, the concepts of work-energy theorem and
conservation of energy will be studied in detail.

6.1. Work
Work is done by a force if the point of application of the force is displaced. A force which does
the work can either be constant or varying. It is a scalar quantity, measured in Joules (J). The
dimensions of work are 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2.
6.1.1 Work done by a constant force
Work done by a constant force is defined as product of the component of the force in the direction
of displacement and the magnitude of the displacement.
Consider figure 6.1 shown below:

Figure 6.1 The work done by a constant force 𝐹⃗ while undergoing a displacement 𝑠⃗ is 𝑊 =
𝐹 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

In this case, the work done by the force is given by:

𝑊 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 × 𝑠
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 cos 𝜃

𝑊 = |𝐹⃗ ||𝑠⃗| cos 𝜃

𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑠⃗

Hence, work is the scalar or dot product of two vectors; 𝐹⃗ and 𝑠⃗. Therefore, it is a scalar quantity.
The force-displacement graph is a straight line parallel to the displacement axis, as shown in figure
6.2.
 𝐹 (𝑥)

A B

O C 𝑥

Figure 6.2 The force-displacement graph is a straight line parallel to the displacement axis
The area under the graph of a force-displacement graph represents the work done by the force.
𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑠 = 𝑂𝐴 × 𝑂𝐶 = Area under the graph
6.1.2 Positive and negative work done by a constant force
The work done by a force is positive when the component of the force 𝐹 cos 𝜃 is in the same
direction as displacement e.g. work done by force of gravity for a free-falling object. Work done
is negative when the component of the force 𝐹 cos 𝜃 is in the opposite direction to that of
displacement e.g. work done by friction and work done by force of gravity when the body is lifted.
If the displacement is perpendicular to the force i.e. 𝜃 = 90∘ , work done is zero.
6.1.3 Work done by a variable force
Consider an object that is being displaced along the 𝑥-axis from 𝑥𝑖 to 𝑥𝑓 due to the application of
a varying positive force 𝐹𝑥 as shown in figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3 The work done by the force is the colored area under the force curve
For a very small displacement, ∆𝑥, we represent the amount of work done by:
 ∆𝑊
∆𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 ∆𝑥 ⟺ = 𝐹𝑥
∆𝑥
𝑑𝑊
∆𝑥 → 0, = 𝐹𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝒙𝒇
∴ 𝑾 = ∫ 𝑭𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝒊

The area enclosed by the graph between 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑥𝑓 represents the work done by the force.

In two dimensions, the work done by the variable force is given by:
𝑥𝑓 𝑦𝑓
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖

6.2. Energy
Energy of an object is its ability to do work. Hence, it is measured in the same units as work and
it is a scalar quantity.
6.2.1 Kinetic energy
It is the energy possessed by the object by virtue of its motion. If a particle of mass 𝑚 moves with
velocity 𝑣, its kinetic energy is equal to the work done in increasing its velocity from 0 to 𝑣.
Let a force 𝐹 act on the body at rest and move a distance 𝑠 (∆𝑥) thereby changing its velocity to
𝑣. Then, by definition, work done is given by:

𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥

From Newton’s second law, we obtain

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

And
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
Then

𝑊 = ∫ 𝑚𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 = 𝑚∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Since
 𝑑𝑥
=𝑣
𝑑𝑡

𝑊 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣

𝑣2 1
𝑊=𝑚 + 𝐶 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐶
2 2
From the initial conditions; 𝑊 = 0, 𝑣 = 0, then 𝐶 = 0
𝟏
∴ 𝑾 = 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
6.2.2 Work-energy theorem
This theorem states that the net work done on a body is equal to the change in kinetic energy of
the body.
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝐾 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖
1 1
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2
2 2
To derive this relationship, we proceed as follows:
From Newton’s second law of motion, we obtain
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎
From kinematic equation (velocity-position), we get

2 2
𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 2𝑎𝑠 ⟺ 𝑎 =
2𝑠
Then;
𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚( )
2𝑠

By definition, the net work done ids given by:

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑠
𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚( )𝑠
2𝑠
1 1 1
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2 ) = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖 2 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖
2 2 2
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∆𝑲
6.2.3 Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body or a system of particles by virtue of its position
or state of strain.
(a) Gravitational potential energy (G.P.E)
Any object of mass 𝑚 experiences a constant gravitational force 𝐹𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 directed towards the
centre of the earth.
𝐺. 𝑃. 𝐸 = work done in lifting the mass through a height ℎ
𝐺. 𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝐹𝑊 × ℎ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
∴ Potential energy (𝑈) = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
And

∆𝑈 = 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 ) = 𝑚𝑔(∆𝑦)

(b) Elastic potential energy

Consider a body of mass 𝑚 attached to a spring with spring constant 𝑘. If the spring is compressed
or stretched by a small distance 𝑥, the spring will exert a restoring force F trying to bring it back
to equilibrium.

Figure 6.4 The variation of the force of a spring on a block

The spring force is 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥: (−) because it is opposite to the displacement. Therefore, if we want
to stretch or compress a spring, we have to apply a force opposite to the restoring force given by:
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑘𝑥
Then:
𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓
𝑊 = ∆𝑈 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥
𝑥2 𝑓 1 1
∆𝑈 = [𝑘 ] = 𝑘𝑥𝑓 2 − 𝑘𝑥𝑖 2
2 𝑥 2 2
𝑖

If 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥, and 𝑥𝑖 = 0, then:
𝟏 𝟐
𝑼= 𝒌𝒙
𝟐
This is the expression for the elastic potential energy or the potential energy of a spring or any
elastic material object.
Graphically, the variation of the force of a spring on a block with displacement can be represented
as follows:

F B

O C𝑥
Figure 6.5 Graph of the applied force F versus displacement x.

The area under the graph represents the work done

Work done = Potential energy
1 1
𝑈= × 𝑂𝐶 × 𝐵𝐶 = × 𝐹 × 𝑥
2 2
Since 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥, then:
1
𝑈= × 𝑘𝑥 × 𝑥
2
𝟏 𝟐
𝑼= 𝒌𝒙
𝟐
6.2.4 Law of conservation of energy
Energy can neither be created be created nor destroyed but can only be transferred from one form
into another, i.e. total energy of a closed system remains constant.
Since mechanical energy (total energy) 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈, then:
Total initial energy = Total final energy
Initial mechanical energy = Final mechanical energy
𝑲𝒊 + 𝑼𝒊 = 𝑲𝒇 + 𝑼𝒇

6.2.5 Conservative and non-conservative forces

A force is conservative if the work done by that force acting on a body moving between two points
is independent of the path taken by the particle, e.g. gravitational force. If the work done by that
force depends on the path taken, the force is called non-conservative force e.g. force of friction.
6.2.6 Extended work-energy theorem
It states that the work done by all non-conservative forces 𝑊𝑛𝑐 equals the change in kinetic energy
plus the change in potential energy of the system. Mathematically, it is given by:

𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = (𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 ) + (𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 ) = ∆𝐸

When there are no non-conservative forces present, 𝑊𝑛𝑐 = 0 and then:

𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸𝑖

In this case, the mechanical energy of the system is conserved.

6.3. Power
Power is the rate at which work is done or simply work done in unit time. If ∆𝑊 is the work done
by an applied force on a body during the time interval ∆𝑡, then the average power 𝑃̅ during this
interval is defined as:
∆𝑊
𝑃̅ =
∆𝑡
We define instantaneous power as is the limiting value of this average power as ∆𝑡 approaches
zero, i.e.
∆𝑊 𝑑𝑊
𝑃 = lim ( )=
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The SI unit of power is joule per second (J/s), called a watt (W). Other potential/practical units of
power are kilowatt (kW) and horse power (Hp).
 1 kilowatt = 1 kW = 1000 W
1 horsepower = 1 hp = 746 W
Work can be expressed as power multiplied by time, as in the common unit, the kilowatt-hour,
Thus:
1 kilowatt-hour = 1 kWh = (103 W) (3,600 s)
= 3.6 × 106 J = 3.6 MJ
It is important to realize that a kWh is a unit of energy, not power. For example, our electric bills
are usually in kWh, and this gives the consumed amount of energy, whereas an electric bulb rated
at a power of 100 W means it would consume 3.6×105 J of energy in 1 hour.

We can express the rate at which a force 𝐹⃗ does work on a particle (or a particle like object) in
terms of that force and the body’s velocity 𝑣⃗
𝑑𝑊
𝑃=
𝑑𝑡
Since 𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑠⃗, then:
𝑑 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝑃= (𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑠⃗) = 𝐹⃗ ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Recognizing 𝑑𝑠⃗⁄𝑑𝑡 as the instantaneous velocity 𝑣⃗, we get:

Positive power means that energy is transferred to the particle, while negative power means that
energy is transferred from the particle.

EXERCISES
1. A force of 2𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ acts on a particle which undergoes a displacement of 3𝑖⃗. Find the work done
by the force. Also find the angle between the force and displacement. [6 J; 26.60]

2. An elevator cab of mass 500 kg is descending with a speed of vi = 4.0m / s when its supporting
 
cable begins to slip, allowing it to fall with a constant acceleration a = g / 5