SPHY011
Lecturer: MBOKAZI ST
OFFICE: 2050 2nd floor
Q-Block
CONTACT: 015 268 2896
Email: thandi.mbokazi@ul.ac.za
2025
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
• ELASTICITY
• THERMAL PHYSICS
• FLUID MECHANICS
WHAT TO EXPECT
• Quizzes
• Assignments
• Tests
• EXAM
ELASTICITY
Objectives: After completing this topic,
you should be able to:
• Demonstrate a good understanding of
elasticity, elastic limit, stress, strain, and
ultimate strength.
• Write and apply formulas for calculating
Young’s modulus, shear modulus, and
bulk modulus.
• Solve problems involving each of the
parameters in the above objectives.
ELASTICITY
It is the property of solid materials to
return to their original shape and size
after the forces deforming them have
been removed.
ELASTICITY
If an external force is applied to a material, it causes deformation in
the molecular structure of that material. By removing this force, the
material returns to its original shape.
RIGID BODY vs ELASTIC BODY
•Rigid body: its shape cannot be changed by force. A rigid
body is an ideal case; in reality, most objects are elastic
when the applied force is smaller than a certain value.
•Elastic body: shape can be changed by applied force; and
back to its original shape when the force is removed.
•example; a spring, rubber
COMPRESSIVE AND TENSILE STRESS
Tension is where the object is being pulled in opposite directions
and Compression is where the object is being pushed from
opposite directions. The equations are the same for Tension and
Compression. The values of the elastic modulus are generally the
same for Tension and Compression.
STRESS
Stress is the ratio of an applied restoring
force F to the area A over which it acts:
F
Stress
A
N lb
Units : Pa 2 or 2
m in.
STRAIN
Strain is the relative change in the
dimensions or shape of a body as the result
of an applied stress:
Examples:
Examples:
Change
Change in
in length
length per
per unit
unit length;
length;
Change
Change in
in volume
volume per
per unit
unit volume.
volume.
L
Strain
L
ELASTIC MODULUS
When stress and strain are small enough, the
two are directly proportional and the
proportionality constant is called an elastic
modulus.
stress
Elastic modulus
strain
TENSILE/COMPRESSIVE STRESS AND STRAIN
• Tensile (Compressive) stress at a cross section
is then defined as the ratio of the
perpendicular force to the cross-section area.
F
Tensile stress
A
TENSILE/COMPRESSIVE STRESS AND STRAIN
• The corresponding elastic modulus is called
Young’s modulus, denoted by Y. We write:
F
A F l0
Tensile stress÷tensile strain=
l A l
l0
RESULTS OF COMPRESSIVE STRESS
RESULTS OF TENSILE
RESULTS OF COMPRESSIVE
STRESS
STRESS
AND TENSILE
RESULTS OF TENSILE STRESS
BULK MODULUS
• Not all deformations are linear. Sometimes an
applied stress F/A results in a decrease of
volume. In such cases, there is a bulk
modulus B of elasticity.
BULK STRESS AND STRAIN
• The perpendicular force per unit area that the
fluid would exert on the surface of an
immersed object is called the pressure p in
the fluid.
F
p
A
BULK STRESS AND STRAIN
• The corresponding strain is the fractional
change in volume, i.e. the ratio of the volume
change V to the original volume V0.
V
Bulk (Volume) Strain
V0
BULK STRESS AND STRAIN
• When the pressure on a body changes by a
small amount p, from p0 to p0 + p, and the
resulting bulk strain is V/V0, Hooke’s law
becomes:
p
B = Bulk stress÷Bulk strain
V
V0
BULK STRESS AND STRAIN
• The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called
the compressibility, denoted by k.
V
1 V0 1 V
k
B p V0 p
BULK STRESS AND STRAIN
SHEAR MODULUS
In Shear Stress, the object has equal and
opposite forces applied across its opposite
faces.
SHEAR MODULUS
In Shear Stress, the object has equal and
opposite forces applied across its opposite
faces.
SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN
• Shear stress is best illustrated by a cutting of a
ribbon using a pair of scissors.
• Forces of equal magnitude but opposite
direction act tangent to the surfaces of
opposite end of the object.
Ftan
Shear stress
A
SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN
x
Shear strain= tan ℽ
h
where x is distance the object is displaced and
h is the height. x is always smaller than h.
SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN
The corresponding elastic modulus is called
the shear modulus, denoted by S:
Ftan / A Ftan h
Shear stress÷Shear strain S
x/h A x
RESULTS OF SHEAR STRESS
ELASTICITY
Strain refers to a change in some spatial dimension
(length, angle, or volume) compared to its original
value and Stress refers to the cause of the change (a
force applied to a surface).
Strains:
linear (ε = ΔL/L0),
shear(γ = Δx/y) and
volume(θ = ΔV/V0).
Which means that Pascal is also SI unit for all
three moduli.
Then, stress = modulus x strain;
Pa = Pa x 1
SUMMARY
Elastic Moduli: are properties of materials, not objects. There are
three basic types of stress and three associated moduli.
Elastic moduli
modulus (symbols) type of stress type of strain configuration change
young's normal to opposite linear longer and thinner or
(Y, E) faces (length) shorter and fatter
shear tangential to opposite shear rectangles become
(S, G) faces (tangent of angle) parallelograms
bulk normal to all faces
volume
volume changes but
(B, K) (uniform compression) shape does not
STRESS-STRAIN GRAPH FOR A
DUCTILE METAL UNDER TENSION
INTERPRETATION OF THE GRAPH
• OA – Hooke's law is obeyed. The slope is equal to the
Young's modulus.
• Point A : proportional limit the stress at this point is
called the Elastic limit.
• A to B, stress and strain are no longer proportional.
• Point B: It is the end of the elastic region and is called
the Yield point.
• O to B: shows elastic behavior.
• Point C: The material has deformed irreversibly.
• B to D: plastic deformation, plastic deformation is
irreversible, when the stress is removed, the material
INTERPRETATION OF THE GRAPH
• d – The fracture point
• BD – plastic behavior
• B to maximum height of the graph – strain
hardening
• Maximum height of the graph to D – necking /
soft hardening
NB:
1. A substance that breaks immediately after
passing the elastic limit is called a brittle material.
Brittle fracture is due to sudden propagation of
cracks in the material.
2. For a ductile material, the ductile fracture arises
due to slow propagation of cracks
INTERPRETATION OF THE GRAPH
The Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the maximum stress a body can
experience without becoming permanently
deformed.
The Ultimate Strength
The ultimate strength is the greatest stress a
body can experience without breaking or
rupturing.
RESEARCH
Based on the graph below, determine what each
region represents (what is actually happening to
the material under the set conditions).
Problem:
1. A long animal tendon was found to stretch by a force of
. The tendon was approximately round with an average
diameter of . Calculate the elastic modulus of this
tendon.
Problem:
2. Two thin rods, one made of steel and the
other of aluminum, are joined end to end. Each
rod is 2.0 m long and has cross-sectional
area 9.1mm2. If a 10,000-N tensile force is
applied at each end of the combination,
calculate (a) stress in each rod; (b) strain in
each rod; and, (c) elongation of each rod.
Solution
a. ; ;
b. ; ;
c.
Problem:
• 3. A copper cube of 25 mm on a side, is subjected to
two shearing forces each of which has a magnitude .
What is the defection d of the copper cube.
Problem:
4. A specimen of oil having an initial volume of is subjected
to a pressure increase of and the volume is found to
decrease by . Determine
(i) the bulk modulus of the material.
(ii) The compressibility of the material.
