REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

CHAPTER 19
FUNCTIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• The reproductive system produces male and female

gametes, enhances fertilization of an oocyte by a sperm,
nurtures the new individual until birth (in the female), and
produces reproductive hormones.
FORMATION OF GAMETES
 The reproductive organs in males and females produces
gametes by meiosis.

1. Two consecutive cell divisions halve the chromosomes

number from 46 total chromosomes to 23 total
chromosomes.
2. Meiosis forms male and female gametes.
MAJOR ORGANS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
 The testes in males and the ovaries in females produce
gametes (GAM-eets), or reproductive cells.
 The formation of gametes in male and female occurs by
a type of cell dividion called meiosis (my-OH-sis; a
lessening).
 Meiosis occurs only in the testes of males and the
ovaries of females. Before meiosis begins, all the
chromosomes in these cells are duplicated, creating
identical copies of each chromosomes, called
chromatids. During meiosis, one cell divides twice to
produce four daughter cells. During the first cell division
of meiosis, the number of chromosomes in each cell is
reduced from 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes to 23 total
chromosomes. The first cell division is called reduction
division.
Second cell division of meiosis are comparable to those in
mitosis. During the second cell division of meiosis, the
chromatids of the 23 chromosomes in each cell are
separated, producing four cells. Each cell contains half of
their original chromosome number, or 23. The reduction in
the number of chromosomes in each cell is critical. During
sexual reproduction, two gametes (an egg and a sperm)
merge to produce the offspring. If each gamete were to
contain the original number of chromosomes, the offspring
would contain far to many chromosomes and would not
survive.
 Two divisions of meiosis
are called Meiosis I and
Meiosis II. Like mitosis,
each division of meiosis
has prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• The male reproductive system
consists of the testes, a series
of ducts, which include the
epididymides, the ducta
deferentia, and the urethra,
accessory glands, which
include the seminal vesicles,
the prostate gland, and the
bulbourethral glands, and
supporting structures, which
include the scrotum and the
penis.
SCROTUM
 The scrotum ( SKROH-tum) is a saclike structure containing the testes.
 The wall of the scrotum includes the skin, a layer of loose connective tissue, and a layer of
smooth muscle called the dartos (DAR-toss) muscle.
 The cremaster (kri-MAS-ter) muscles which are extensions of abdominal skeletal muscles into
the scrotum, contract and helppull the testes nearer the body.
 The dartos and cremaster muscles help regulate testes temperature.
TESTES
 The testes (TES-tees), or male gonads (GOH-nads; gone, seed), are oval organs, each about
4-5 cm long, within the scrotum.
 The outer part of each testis consists of a thick, white connective tissue capsule. Extension of
the capsule project into the interior of the testis and divide each testis into about 250 cone
shaped lobules.
 The lobules contain seminiferous (sem-ih-NIF-er-us) tubules, the site of sperm cell
development.
 Located outside the seminiferous tubules are endocrine cells, called interstitial (in-ter-STISH-al)
cells, or Leydig (LYE-dig) cells. Interstitial cells secrete testosterone.
Spermatogenesis
 Formation of sperm cells.
 Spermatogenesis begins in the seminiferous tubules at the time of puberty.
 Sustentacullar cells nourish the sperm cells and produce small amounts of hormones.
 Spermatogonia divide (mitosis) to form primary spermatocytes.
 Primary spermatocytes divide by mieosis to produce first secondary spermatocytes and then
spermatids. The spermatids then mature to form sperm cells.
 A spermatid develops a head, midpiece, and flagellum to become a sperm cell . The head
contains the acrosome and the nucleus.
Ducts
 After the production, sperm cells are transported through the seminiferous tubules and a series
od ducts to the exterior of the body.
 The epididymis, a coiled tube system, is located on the testis and is the site of sperm maturation.
Final changes, called capacitation of sperm cells, occur after ejaculation.
 The seminiferous tubules lead to the rete testis, which opens into the efferent ductules that
extend to the epididymis.
 The ductus deferens passes from the epididymis into the abdominal cavity.
 The ejaculatory duct is formed by the joining of the ductus deferens and the duct from the
seminal vesicle.
 The urethra extends from the urinary bladder through the penis to the outside of the body.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
Penis
 The penis (PEE-nis) is the male organ of copulation and functions in the transfer of sperm
cells from the male to female.
 The two corpora cavernosa form the dorsum and the sides.
 The corpus spongiosum forms the ventral portion and the glans penis, and it encloses the
spongy urethra. The prepuce covers the glans penis.

Glands
 The seminal vesicles are glands consisting of many saclike structures located next to the
ampulla of the ductus deferens. There are two seminal vesicles. Each is about 5 cm long
and tapers into a short duct that joins the ampulla of the ductus deferens to form thhe
ejaculatory duct, as previously mentioned.
 The prostate gland consists of both glandular and muscular tissue and is about the size
and shape of a walnut. The prostate gland surrounds the urethra and the two ejaculatoty
ducts.
 The bulbourethral gland, or Cowper glands, are a pair of small, mucus-secreting glands
located near the base of the penis.
Secretions
 Semen is a mixture of sperm cells and secretions from the male reproductive glands. The
seminal vesicles produce about 60% of the fluid, the prostate gland contirbutes
approximately 30%, the testes contribute 5%, and the bulbourethral glands contibute 5%.
 The bulbourethral glands and the urethral mucous glands produce mucus that nuetralizes
the acidic pH of the urethra.
 The testiscular secretions contain sperm cells.
 The seminal vesicle fluid contains nutrients, prostaglandins, and protiens that coagulate.
 The prostate fluid contains nutrients and proteolytic enzymes, and it neutralizes the pH of
the vagina.
PHYSIOLOGY OF MALE REPRODUCTION
REGULATION OF REPRODUCTIVE HORMONE SECRETION IN MALES

• The hypothalamus of the brain, the anterior pituitary gland, and the testes all
produce hormones that influence the male reproductive system.
• Male reproductive hormones are produced by the hypothalamus, the anterior
pituitiary, and the testes.
 GnRH is produced in the hypothalamus and released in surges.
 GnRH stimulates release of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary.
 LH stimulates the interstitial cells produce testosterone.
 FSH binds to sustentacular cells and stimulates spermatogenesis and
secretion of inhibin.
 Testosterone has a negative-feedback effect on GnRH, LH, and FSH
secretion.
 Inhibin has a negative-feedback effect on FSH secretion.
Puberty in males
 Puberty is the time period during which individuals become capable of
sexual reproduction.
 In males, puberty commonly begins between the ages of 12 and 14 and is
largely completed by age 18.
 Before puberty, small amounts of testosterone inhibit GnRH release.
 During puberty, testosterone does not completely suppress GnRH release,
resulting in increased production of FSH, LH, and testosterone.
Effects of Testosterone
 Testosterone is the major male hormone secreted by the testes.
 During puberty, testosterone causes the enlargement and differentiation of
the male genitals and the reproductive duct sytstem.
 It necessary for spermatogenesis and for the development of male secondary
sexual chracterisitics.
 The secondary sexual characteristics are those structural and behavioral
changes, other than in the reproductive organs, that develop at puberty and
distinguish males from females.
Male Sexual Behavior and the Male Sex Act
 Testosterone is reuired for normal sexual behavior.
 The male sex act is complex series of reflexes that result in erection of the
penis, secretion of mucus into the urethra, emission, and ejaculation.
 Emission is the movement of sperm cells, musus,prostatic secretions, and
seminal vesicle secretions into the protastic, membranous, and spongy
urethra.
 Ejaculation is the forceful expulsion of the secretions that have accumulated
in the urethra to the exterior. Sensation, normally interpreted as pleasurable,
occur during the male sex act and result in an intense sensation called an
orgasm, or climax.
 A phase called resolution occurs after ejaculation.
 Stimulation of the sex act can be tactile or psychological
 Sensory impulses pass to the sacral region of the spinal cord.
 Motor stimulation causes erection, mucus production, emission, and
ejaculation.
 Erection occurs, the penis becomes enlarged and rigid.
 Emission is the accumulation of sperm cells and semen in the urethra.
 Ejaculation is the forceful release of semen in the urethra.

Infertility in Males
 Infertility is the inability or the reduced ability to produce offspring.
 The most common cause of infertility in males is a low sperm cell count.
 A count of less than 20 million sperm cells per milliliter usually indicates
infertility.
 In cases of infertility due to low sperm count or reduced motility, fertility can
sometimes be achieved by collecting several ejaculations and concentrating
the sperm cells before inderting them into the female reproductive tract, a
process called artificial insemination.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 The female reproductive organs consists of the ovaries, the uterine tubes ( or
fallopian tubes), the uterus, the vagina, the external genitalia, and the
mammary glands. The internal reproductive organs of the female are located
within the pelvis, between the urinary bladder and the rectum. The uterus and
the vagina are in the midline, with an ovary to each side of the uterus. The
internal reproductive organs are held in place within the pelvis by a group of
ligaments. The most conspicuous is the broad ligament, which spreads out
on both sides of the uterus and attaches to the ovaries and uterine tubes.
Ovaries

 Females have two ovaries (OH-va-rees; ovum, egg).

 Each ovary is a small organ suspended in the pelvic cavity by two ligaments.
 The suspensory ligament extends from each ovary to the lateral body wall
 The ovarian ligament attaches the ovary to the superior margin of the
uterus.
 In addition, the ovaries are attached to the posterior surface of the broad
ligament by folds of peritonuem called the mesovarium. The ovarian
arteries, veins, and nerves traverse the suspensory ligament and enter the
ovary through the mesovarium.
 A layer of visceral peritoneum
covers the surface of the ovary. The
outer part of the ovary is composed
of dense connective tissue contains
ovarian follicles.
 Each of the ovarian follicles
contains an oocyte (egg), the
female reproductive cell. Loose
connective tissue makes up the
inner part of the ovary, where blood
vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves located.
Oogenesis, Follicle Development, and Fertilization

 The processes of gamete production in females is called oogenesis.

 Oogenesis begins even before a female is born.
 By the fourth month of development, the ovaries contain 5 million oogonia, the
cells from which oocytes develop.
 By birth, many oogonia have degenerated , and for the remaining oogonia
meiosis has stop in prophase I, causing them to become primary oocytes.
 By puberty, 300,000 to 400,000 primary oocytes remain,of which about 400
will be release from the ovaries.
 Ovulation is the release of an oocyte from an ovary. The first meiotic division is
completed, and a secondary oocyte is released.
 A sperm cell penetrates the the secondary oocyte, the second meiotic division
is completed, and the nuclei of the oocyte and sperm cell are united to
complete fertilization.
 A primordial follicle is a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of flat
granulosa cells.
 In primary follicles, the oocyte enlarges, and granulosa cells become cuboidal
and form more than one layer. A zona pellucida is present.
 The primary follicle becomes a secondary follicle as fluid-filled spaces called
vesicles form among the granulosa cells, and a capsule called the theca (a box)
forms around the follicle.
 The secondary follicle continues to enlarge, and when the fluid-filled vesicles
fuse to form a single, fluid-filled chamber called the antrum the follicle is called
the mature follicle, or graafian follicle. The primary oocyte is pushed off to one
side and lies in a mass of granulosa cells called the cumulus cells.
 Ovulation is the release of the secondary oocyte from the ovary.
 Just before ovulation, the primary oocyte completes the first meiotic dividion to
produce a secondary oocyte and a nonviable polar body.
 Fertilization begins when a sperm cell penetrates the cytoplasm of a
secondary oocyte.
 Fertilization is complete when oocyte nucleus and the sperm cell nucleus unite,
returning the chromosome number to 46.
 This forms a zygote. The zygote has 23 pairs of chromosomes.
 In the ovary, following ovulation, the remaining cells of the ruptured follicle are
transformed into a glandular structure called the corpus luteum.
 If pregnancy occurs, the corpus leteum enlarges in response to a hormone
secreted by the placenta called human chorionic gonadotropin hormone
(hCG).
 If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus leteum lasts for 10-12 days and begins
to degenerate to form a remnant of the corpus leteum, called the corpus
albicans.
 Uterine Tubes
 Uterine Tube, also called a fallopian tube or oviduct, is associated with each ovary.
 The opening of each uterine tube is surrounded by long, thin processes called fimbriae.
 The fimbriae nearly surround the surface of the ovary.
 Cilia on the fimbriae surface sweep the oocyte into the uteribe tube.
 Fertilization usually occurs in the part of the uterine tube near the ovary, called the ampulla.
 The fertilized oocyte then travels to the uterus, where it embeds in the uterine wall in a process
called implantation.

Uterus
 The uterus is a pear-shaped organ. The uterine cavity and the cervical canal are the spaces
formed by the uterus.
 The wall of the uterus consists of the perimetrium, or serous layer; the myometrium (smooth
muscle); and the endometrium.
 The uterus is supported by the broad ligament and the round ligament.
 The uterus can extend inferiorly into the vagina, a condition called a prolapsed uterus.
Vagina
 The vagina is the female organ copulation; it receives the penis during
intercourse.
 The vagina connects the uterus (cervix) to the vestibule.
 The vagina consists of a layer of smooth muscle and an inner lining of moist
stratified squamous epithelium.
 The wall of the vagina produces lubricating fluid.
 The hymen covers the vestibular opening of the vagina in young females.
External Genitalia
 The external female genitalia, also called the vulva or pedendum, concsists of the vestibule amd
its surrounding structures.
 The vestibule is the space into which both the vagina and the urethra open.
 The vestibule is bordered by a pair of thin, longitudinal skin folds called the labia minora.
 A small, erectile structure called the clitoris is located in the anterior margin of the vestibule.
 The two labia minora unite over the clitoris to form a fold of skin called the prepuce.
 On each side of the vestibule, between the vaginal opening and the labia minora, are openings of
the greater vestibular glands.
 Lateral to the labia minora are two prominent, rounded folds of skin called the labia majora.
 The two labia majora unite anteriorly at an elevation of tissue over the pubic symphysis called the
mons pubis.
 The space between the labia majora is called the pudental cleft.
 The clinical perineum is the region between the vagina and the anus.
 The skin and muscle of this region can tear during childbirth.
 To prevent such tearing, an incision called an episiotomy is sometimes made in the clinical
perineum.
FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITALIA
 Mammary Glands
 Mammary glands are the organs of milk production and are located in the breasts.
 Each of the breasts of both males and females has a raised nipple surrounded by a circular,
pigmented area called areola.
 Each adult female breast contains mammary glands consisting usually 15-20 grandular lobes
covered by adipose tissue.
 Each lobe possesses a single lactiferous duct that opens independently to the surface of the
nipple. The duct each lobe is formed as several smaller ducts, which originate from lobules,
converge.
 In the milk-producing, or lactating,mammary gland, the ends of these small ducts expand to form
secretory sacs called alveoli.
 Myoepithelial cells surround the the alveoli and contract to expel milk from the alveoli.
 The nipples are very sensitive to tactile stimulation and contain smooth muscle cells that
contract, causing nipple to become erect in response to stimulation.
 These smooth muscle cells respond to stimuli, such as touch, cold, and sexual arousal.
PHYSIOLOGY OF FEMALE REPRODUCTION
 Female reproduction is controlled by both hormonal and
nervous system mechanisms.
Puberty in Females
 Puberty begins with the first menstrual bleeding (menarche).
 Puberty begins when GnRH, LH, and FSH levels increase.

Menstrual Cycle
 The term menstrual cycle refers to the series of changes that occur in
sexually mature, nonpregnant females and that result in menses.
 Menses is a period of mild hemorrhage, during which part of the
endometrium is sloughed and expelled from the uterus.
 If fertilization does not occur, progesterone secretion by the corpus lureum
decreases and means begins.
 If fertilization does occur, the corpus luteum continues to secrete progeterone
and menses does not occur.
Menses
 In a menstrual cycle in which pregnancy does not occur, the levels of
estrogen and progesterone decline to very low levels as the corpus luteum
degenerate.

Proliferative Phase
 The time between the end of menses and ovulation is called the proliferative
phase. Epithelial cells multiply and form glands.

Secretory phase
 The endometrium becomes thicker, and endometrial glands secrete.
Menopause
 The cessation of the menstrual cycle is called menopause.

Female Sexual Behavior and the Female Sex Act.

 Female sex dive is partially influenced by testosterone-like hormones
produced by the adernal cortex and estrogen produced by the ovary.
 Autonomic nerves cause erectile tissue to become engorged with blood, the
vestibular glands to secrete mucus, and the vagina to produce a lubricating
fluid.
Control of Pregnancy

• Behavioral methods are effective only when used consistently.

• Barrier methods prevent contact between sperm cell and oocyte.
• Chemcal methods prevent oocyte ovulation.
• Surgical methods are typically permanent.

Infertility in females
• Causes of infertiliy in females include malfunctions of the uterine tubes,
reduced hormone secretion from the pituitary or ovary, and interruption of
implantation.
THANK YOU!

GROUP MEMBERS:
BANGUG, SARAH JHANE
BATTAD, SUSHEN
SUMABAT, ELMIRA
YNION, PRINCESS NICOLE