Energy And Renewable Energy

EPM213s

Lecture 7

Spring 2024

25/01/2025 1
 DC Machines

Course outcomes: Evaluate

 DC machine operation, efficiency and regulation.
 DC motor speed control.

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:Contents

• Introduction
• The Stator and Rotor
• Types of DC Machines
• DC Generators Separately and Self-Excited
• DC Motors Separately and Self-Excited
• DC Motors Speed Control
• Losses and Efficiency

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 Introduction
Although DC is not widely used by consumers, DC machines have played a major role in industry
over the years.
FE: elevators use DC machines.

DC MACHINE:

DC machine operates as the result of the interaction of rotating coils with a stationary magnetic
field.
The rotor contains the armature winding -a number of coils mounted in lots on the rotor.
The ends of the coils are connected to the commutator at the end of the rotor.
Carbon brushes ride on the surface of the commutator to make electrical contact from outside
the motor to the armature coils.
The stationary magnetic field is provided either by DC coils on the stator of the machine or by
permanent magnets mounted inside the stator.
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 The
Stator

DC machine stator.
a) Cross section.
b) Side view.

It is simpler and less expensive to make a stator using assembled stack of stamped laminations.

The ear-shaped projections in the center are the pole faces, which actually become a north and
south pole during operation of the machine.

The field coils are mounted behind the ear-shaped projections and provide the magnetomotive
force (MMF) required to establish the magnetic field.
MMF is the product of current and the number of turns in the coil.
Thus, MMF can be provided with high current and few turns or with low current and
many turns.
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 The
Rotor
The rotor contains the armature winding, which is
the high-power winding of the DC machine.
The slots in the lamination provide space for
the armature coil.

When operating as a generator, the armature

winding is rotated through the field,
generating a DC voltage that is delivered to
the load.

For motor operation, the armature winding

draws current from the source, and the
current in the armature coils interacts with
the field to create an electromagnetic torque
that drives a mechanical load.
Details of a DC machine armature. The commutator consists of a number of
a. Side view of rotor. copper segments that are electrically
b. Cross section of commutator. insulated from each other and from the rotor
c. Cross section of lamination stack. shaft.
The brushes are held by springs against the
rotating of the commutator so as to make
The armature windings carry AC current, electrical contact and to provide a
which is rectified by the switching action of connection from the rotating coils to the
the commutator. outside world.

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.Separately excited DC machine

Notation:
A1-A2: the armature terminals
F1-F2: the shunt field
S1-S2: the series field

The separately excited field is provided with a separate DC source.

Because it requires a separate DC power supply, the separately

excited machine is usually used only when a wide range of
voltage control (generator) or speed control (motor) is required.

The field current is typically only a few percent of the rated output
current, so a small field current controls a much larger armature
current.
The separately excited DC generator effectively operates as a power
amplifier.

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 Shunt-motor or self-excited generator

Notation:
A1-A2: the armature terminals
F1-F2: the shunt field
S1-S2: the series field

Self-excited means they rely on the generator’s own voltage

to provide the excitation (note: residual magnetism to
provide initial flux is required to build up the initial excitation).

The shunt connection is in which the field is connected in parallel, or shunt with the
armature.
The voltage from the armature is applied directly to the field in the case of a generator,
while for motor operation the source voltage is applied to the field and armature.

The rheostat is used for changing the field current without changing the voltage, and
therefore provides a measure of voltage control for the generator and speed control
for the motor.

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Generated Voltage Equation for a DC Generator:
To understand the operation of the DC generator we need to obtain the relationship
for the generated voltage in terms of flux, the physical design of the machine, and its speed.

Faraday’s law tell us

where N is the # of series conductors.

During each revolution, a conductor cuts the flux of P poles, where P is the number of poles
in the machine.

The total amount of flux cut in one revolution:

the flux per
pole

If the speed of the machine in RPM is represented by n, then the time to complete one
revolution is:

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Number of series We need to find the number of series
conductors The total number of armature
conductors conductors in the armature to
calculate the generated voltage

The number of parallel paths

Depends on the armature
winding structure

expression for the

generated
voltage of a DC
generator:

Kg is called the generator constant for a DC machine and is a function of the design of the
machine-specifically, the number of poles and the type of winding.

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 Armature
Windings

Lap Winding:
The ends of each coil are connected to adjacent
commutator segments.

For a lap wound armature the number of parallel paths

through the armature is equal to the number of poles.

Wave Winding:
The armature coils are connected to commutator
segments of commutator on opposite sides of the
armature.

The wave winding has only 2 parallel paths between

brushes regardless of the number of poles in the machine.

Lap winding provides more parallel paths, which means higher current and lower voltage.
The wave winding has more series coils, yielding higher voltage and lower current.
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Magnetization Curve of the Separately Excited Machine

Because of both hysteresis and saturation effects in

the iron of the machine, the flux per pole is a
nonlinear function of the field current.

Generated voltage of a DC machine is a linear

function of the flux per pole, so it is also nonlinear
with respect to the field current.

n1 < n2 < n3

So if we have two voltages at two different speeds,

with
the flux per pole held constant:

If we know generated voltage at one speed we can

calculate generated voltage using the same DC
generator at any other speed using:

Generated voltage of a DC machine is linear with

01/25/2025 respect to the rotational speed of the machine
12
 DC Generator
Characteristics
Effect of armature reaction on separately excited
generator
terminal voltage.

The terminal voltage of the separately excited DC

generator would be expected to decrease in a
linear manner due to the voltage drop across the
armature circuit resistance.

As the load current increases armature reaction may lower the flux per pole causing
an additional reduction in the terminal voltage. The terminal voltage of a separately
excited DC generator will actually decline nonlinearly when the armature current is
increased.

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 Self-Excited
Generator
The magnetization curve produced when the machine
is separately excited still applies.

Because the load current is zero, the only current in the

armature winding is the field current.
Field circuit equation:

It represents a linear volt-amp characteristic, which has

a slope equal to the sum of the three resistances on the
right-hand side of the equation.
Self-excited, shunt DC generator operating at no load
The self-excited generator requires some residual
magnetism in the field poles in order to generate
voltage.

When the generator is turned, the residual flux induces

a small armature voltage (point I).
That voltage causes a field current (point 2) that
increases the voltage more (point 3), which causes
more field current and so forth.

This process is called building up.

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 Variation of the Generated Voltage with
.Speed
Performance of self-excited generator
as the speed varies.

a. Intersection of field circuit line with

generated-voltage curves at several
speeds.
b. Resulting generated voltage as
a function of speed.

When the speed changes, we move to a new magnetization curve while moving down the field circuit
equation line.

The voltage drops very quickly when the speed is reduced for a self-excited, shunt DC generator.
Decreasing the speed decreases the generated voltage, which in turn reduces the field current and flux,
thus further reducing the generated voltage.

The voltage versus speed plot is nonlinear for the self-excited DC generator.

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 Conditions for Voltage Build-Up in a Self-
Excited DC
Generator
1. There must be residual magnetism in the machine pole pieces.

2. The field coil must provide flux in the same direction as the residual flux. Otherwise, the
machine will build down to zero volts.

3. The field circuit resistance must not be excessive but sufficient.

4. The machine must have sufficient speed (voltage is a function of speed).

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 Voltage
Under Load
By putting a variable load on the self-excited DC generator, we observe the effect on the terminal
voltage of varying the load current.
Three effects are observed:
1. As the load increases, the load voltage declines
due to the resistance of the armature (dot-
dash).

2.
As the armature current increases, armature
reaction reduces the flux per pole, further
reducing the voltage (dotted line) unless it is
corrected for implementing compensating
windings .

3. Reduction of the field voltage by these two

factors causes the field current to decrease,
lowering the voltage some more (solid line).

Volt-amp characteristic of a self-excited DC generator

As the load increases, the current and terminal voltage continue to decrease, until the short-
The point
circuit whereis the
current curveat
reached turns aroundvoltage.
zero-load is called the breakdown point, which usually occurs at
about
50% of rated current.

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 DC Motor
For a motor, the armature current is into the machine
and the voltage equation is:

The power into the machine is the product of the

terminal current and voltage:

Copper losses (the losses due to the resistance

of the armature winding:
P
o
w
e
r
The portion of the input that is converted
to mechanical power (the developed t
power) o

t
o
r
q
u
e

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e
 Shunt Motor
For the motor, the armature current is into machine and the voltage equation
is:

The armature voltage of a motor is:

From the voltage equation we derive the speed equation:

For a shunt machine connected to a constant voltage, the flux per pole is constant and the speed equation is
a linear relation between n and Ia.

Speed characteristic of a shunt DC

motor
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 DC Motor Speed Control

The major advantage of DC motors has been the ability to control the speed-torque characteristic over a
fairly
wide range of speeds for a given torque.

From the speed equation for the shunt DC motor

•we can see that there are two controllable variables that could be
used to change the speed of the machine.

1. Decreasing the flux in the denominator

would allow the speed to increase. This
is done by increasing the field rheostat
resistance.

2. By decreasing the terminal voltage, the

speed would drop.

3. Changing the resistance in the armature

circuit.
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 LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

The losses in a machine affect its cost, rating, and performance. The efficiency of a rotating machine
is frequently determined by measuring the losses.

The efficiency is defined the same way as it is for transformers and other types of machines:

Typical efficiencies of DC motors are shown in the table below. Generators would have similar
efficiencies except they would be rated in kW.
The amount of loss in each category depends on the number of windings, type of core, whether the
machine has brushes, etc.

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