HYDRAULICS AND FLUID

MECHANICS

CET 05113
CET 05106

DR. [Link]
 Introduction
Fluids Mechanics
•What is fluid mechanics? It is the branch of applied mechanics
concerned with the statics and dynamics of fluids - liquids and
gases.
Hence: Fluid mechanics is the branch of applied mechanics that
studies fluids (liquids, and gases,) and the forces on them.
Fluid mechanics can be divided into:
• Fluid statics, (also called hydrostatics) the study of fluids at rest;
•Fluid kinematics, the study of fluids in motion;
•and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid
motion.
 Introduction
The analysis of the behaviour of fluids is based on the fundamental laws
of mechanics: continuity of mass and energy and momentum.
•Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following:
Conservation of mass
•The law of conservation of mass, or principle of mass conservation,
states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy
(both of which have mass), the mass of the system must remain constant
over time, as system mass cannot change quantity if it is not added or
removed.

•The quantity of mass is "conserved" over time. The law implies that
mass can neither be created nor destroyed, although it may be rearranged
in space, or the entities associated with it may be changed in form.

Example: Like when you have an ice cube it melts into a liquid and
when it gets heated it becomes a gas. It may disappear to the human eye
 Introduction
Conservation of energy
•The law of conservation of energy is a law of science that states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed, but only changed from one form
into another or transferred from one object to another.

•Example: - When a moving car hits a parked car and causes the parked
car to move, energy is transferred from the moving car to the parked car.

•When you push a book across the table, the energy from your moving
arm is transferred from your body to the book, causing the book to move.
 Introduction
Conservation of momentum
•It states that the linear momentum does not change unless an external
force acts upon it. The law of conservation of momentum explains that
momentum is neither lost or gained. "when two bodies collide with one
another, the total energy remains constant“

• That means that the total amount of momentum doesn't change. This is
relevant, for example, in a collision. (5 balls hanging on a string, when
you move one to hit the other balls, there is a reaction.)
 What is hydraulic engineering?
Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is
concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water
and sewage.
•These systems use gravity as the motive force to cause the movement
of the fluids. This area of civil engineering is related to the design of
bridges, dams, channels, canals, and to environmental engineering.

Scope of Hydraulics
•Hydraulic engineering is the application of fluid mechanics principles
to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport,
regulation, measurement, and use of water. The use of fluid to do work
is called hydraulics.

•"The hydraulic engineer actually develops conceptual designs for the

various features which interact with water such as spillways and outlet
works for dams, culverts for highways, canals and related structures for
irrigation projects.
 Dimensional Homogeneity

•Dimensional homogeneity is a principle stating that the dimensions of

the terms in an equation must be consistent and compatible.

•This means that every term in an equation must have the same
dimensional units, ensuring that mathematical operations make physical
sense.

•Dimensional homogeneity is a valuable tool in checking for errors.

Make sure every term in an equation has the same units

•For example, in an equation describing motion, if one term represents

distance (with dimensions of length) and another represents time, they
cannot be combined in a meaningful way unless they are expressed in
compatible dimensions (like speed, which has dimensions of
length/time).
 Dimensional homogeneity
• Physical quantities require quantitative descriptions when solving engineering
problems.

• Density, which is one such physical quantity, is a measure of the mass contained in
unit volume. Density, however, does not represent a fundamental magnitude.

• There are nine quantities considered to be fundamental magnitudes, and they are:
length, mass, time, temperature, amount of a substance, electric current, luminous
intensity, plane angle, and solid angle.

• The magnitudes of all the quantities can be expressed in terms of the fundamental
magnitudes.

• To give the magnitude of a quantity a numerical value, a set of units must be

selected.

• Two primary systems of units in Fluid Mechanics: the Imperial System (sometimes
called the English units) and the International System, which is referred to as SI
 Dimensional homogeneity
Dimensional homogeneity is crucial for:
•Validating Equations: Ensuring that physical equations are
dimensionally consistent helps verify their correctness.

•Unit Conversions: When working with different unit systems,

maintaining dimensional homogeneity ensures accurate results.

•Deriving Relationships: It aids in deriving equations by confirming

that derived quantities have the appropriate dimensions.
 Meaning of dimension and unit
• Dimension = A dimension is the measure by which a physical
variable is expressed quantitatively.

• Unit = The magnitudes assigned to dimensions are called units.

• Thus length is a dimension associated with such variables as
distance, displacement, width, deflection, and height, while
centimetres or meters are both numerical units for expressing
length.

• Primary Quantity: In fluid mechanics, there are only four

primary dimensions from which all the dimensions can be
derived: mass, length, time, and temperature(Ө). Symbol like
[M] mean “the dimension” of mass.
• Secondary Quantities : All other variables in fluid mechanics
can be expressed in terms of [M], [L], [T], and [F]. For example,
acceleration has the dimensions [LT-2]. Force [F] is directly
related to mass, length, and time by Newton’s second law,
 UNIT SYSTEMS

•We will work with two unit systems in FLUID MECHANICS:

• International System (SI)
• U.S. Customary (USCS)
• SI UNITS
In the SI system, the unit of force, the Newton, is derived unit. The meter, second and

kilogram are base units.

• U.S. CUSTOMORY
In the US Customary system, the unit of mass, the slug, is a derived unit. The foot,
 Basic Unit System & Units
The SI system consists of six primary units, from which all
quantities may be described but in fluid mechanics we are
generally only interested in the top four units from this table.

Derived Units
There are many derived units all obtained from combination of the above
primary units. Those most used are shown in the table below:
Derived Units
Table summarizes these unit systems.
 SI System of Units
• The corresponding unit of force derived from Newton’s second law:
“ the force required to accelerate a kilogram at one meter per second per
second is defined as the Newton (N)”
The acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface: 9.81
m/s2.
Thus, the weight of one kilogram at the earth’s surface:

W=mg

= (1) (9.81) kg m / s2

= 9.81 N
 Traditional Units
• The system of units that preceded SI units in several
countries is the so-called English system.

Length = foot (ft) = 30.48 cm

Mass = slug = 14.59 kg

The force required to accelerate a mass of one slug at one foot

per second per second is one pound force (lbf).
The mass unit in the traditional system is the pound mass
(lbm).
 Qualitative Aspect

• Qualitative aspect serves to identify the nature, or type, of the

characteristics (such as length, time, stress, and velocity)

• Qualitative descriptions is given in terms of certain primary

quantities, such as Length, time, T, mass M, and temperature Ө.
The primary quantities are also referred to as basic dimensions

• These primary quantities can then used to provide a qualitative

description of any other secondary quantity: for example, area = L2,
velocity = LT-1, density = ML-3
 Quantitative Aspects

• Provide a numerical measure of the characteristics

• Require both a number and a standard

• A standard for length might be a metre or foot, for time an hour or

second, and for mass a slug or kilogram

• Such standard are called units

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS
Definition of a fluid
•A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously whilst
acted upon by any force tangential to the area on which it acts.
•Such a force is termed a shear force, and the ratio of the shear force to
the area on which it acts is known as the shear stress. Hence when a
fluid is at rest neither shear forces nor shear stresses exist in it.
Hence: Fluids deforms continuously(=flows) when acted on by a
shearing stress of any magnitude –
A substance which continue to change shape(=deform) as long as
there is a shear stress present, however small, i.e., a substance which,
when at rest, cannot sustain a shear stress.
•Shear force, or shear stress, is when a force is applied to the face of a
material. The force is applied parallel to the object instead of
perpendicular.
those liquids and gases that move under the action of a shear stress, no

matter how small that shear stress may be.

- case of solid : A solid can resist a shear stress by a static deformation

The deformation is caused by shearing forces which act tangentially to a surface. Referring to the

figure below, we see the force F acting tangentially on a rectangular (solid lined) element ABDC. This

is a shearing force and produces the (dashed lined) rhombus element A’B’DC.
 Introduction
• If a fluid is at rest there are no shearing forces acting.

• All forces must be perpendicular to the planes which the are

acting.

• In this connection fluid can also be defined as the state of matter

that cannot sustain any shear stress.

• When a fluid is in motion shear stresses are developed if the

particles of the fluid move relative to one another.

• When this happens adjacent particles have different velocities.

• If fluid velocity is the same at every point then there is no shear

stress produced: the particles have zero relative velocity.
 Introduction
• Consider the flow in a pipe in which water is flowing.

• At the pipe wall the velocity of the water will be zero.

• The velocity will increase as we move toward the centre of the pipe.
•
• This change in velocity across the direction of flow is known as
velocity profile and shown graphically in the figure below:
• Particles of fluid next to each other are moving with different velocities there are shear forces

in the moving fluid i.e. shear forces are normally present in a moving fluid.

• If a fluid is a long way from the boundary and all the particles are travelling with the same

velocity, the velocity profile would look something like this:

Velocity profile in uniform flow

 Characteristics of Fluids
• Fluid = Liquid + Gas
• Liquid : A state of matter in which the molecules are relatively free
to change their positions with respect to each other but restricted by
cohesive forces so as to maintain a relatively fixed volume
Characteristics
- retain a definite volume in a container
- form a free surface in gravitational field
- strong intermolecular cohesive force
- the spacing between molecules at a normal pressure and temperature
= order of 10-7 mm
- number of molecules per mm3 = 1021
 Characteristics of Fluids
Gas : A state of matter in which the molecules are practically
unrestricted by cohesive forces.
•A gas has neither definite shape nor volume.
Characteristics
-volume of gas=volume of container
-Gas cannot form a free surface, and thus gas flows rarely concerned
with gravitational effects other than buoyancy
-negligible cohesive forces - A gas is free to expand until it encounters
confining walls.
- A gas has no definite volume and left to itself without confinement
-the spacing between molecules at a normal pressure and temperature
= order of 10-6 mm
- number of molecules per ; mm3 = 1018
What is a fluid?
 What is a fluid?
• A fluid is a substance in the gaseous or liquid form

Distinction between solid and fluid

• Solid: can resist an applied shear by deforming. Stress is proportional
to strain

• Fluid: deforms continuously under applied shear. Stress is proportional

to strain rate
Distinction Between Solids, Liquids & Gases
• A fluid can be either gas or liquid.

• Solid molecules are arranged in a specific lattice formation and

their movement is restricted.

• Liquid molecules can move with respect to each other when a

shearing force is applied.

• The spacing of the molecules of gases is much wider than that of

either solids or liquids and it is also variable.
 TYPES OF FLUID
Fluids can be classified according to their behaviours under stress as
Newtonian fluids or non-Newtonian fluids.

Newtonian Fluids
•Fluids which obey Newton’s law viscosity which says “The shear
stress is linearly related to the rate of shear strain or velocity gradient;
the constant of proportionality being the coefficient of viscosity”.

•In simple terms, the size of the drops is directly related to the
thickness of the fluid, all else being equal. Most common fluids such as
water, gasoline, ethanol, fall into this category.

Non-Newtonian Fluids
•Fluids which do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity. The group
includes: liquid plastics, blood, slurries, toothpaste
 Types of Fluid
IDEAL FLUID and REAL FLUID

•A fluid in which there is no friction is termed as ideal fluid, whereas, a

fluid in which shearing forces always exist whenever motion takes
place due to the fluid’s inner friction –viscosity.
 THE FLUID AS A CONTINUUM
• The fluid as a continuum" refers to the concept in fluid mechanics where
a fluid is treated as a continuous mass rather than a collection of discrete
particles.

• A discrete particle is an individual unit or entity that is distinct and

separate from others. In physics and chemistry, discrete particles can
refer to atoms, molecules, or any other defined units of matter that can
be treated as separate objects.

• Continuum approach simplifies the analysis of fluid behavior by

assuming that properties such as density, pressure, and velocity vary
throughout the fluid, allowing for the use of calculus in equations
governing fluid dynamics.

• In this framework, even though fluids are made up of individual

molecules, they are analyzed as if they occupy continuous regions in
space.
 Concept of Continuum
• All substances are composed of an extremely large number of
molecules. : Molecules interact with each other via collision and
intermolecular forces => ignore the molecular nature of matter and
assume that the matter is continuous : Continuum hypothesis

• A fluid is considered to be a continuum in which there are no holes

or voids ⇒velocity, pressure, and temperature fields are
continuous.

• The term "fluid particle" is taken to mean a small element of fluid

which contains many molecules and which possesses the mean
fluid properties at its position in space.
 Newton's Law of Viscosity
Newtonian fluids
•Consider fluids are full of two parallel walls.

•A shear stress, τ , is applied to the upper wall.

•Fluids are deformed continuously because fluids cannot support shear

stresses.

•The deformation rate is constant.

•Furthermore, if the deformation rate or the so-called rate of strain is

proportional to the shear stress, then the fluid will be classified as a
Newtonian fluid, i.e.

•Shear stress; τ = F/A

Consider a 3d rectangular element of fluid, like that in the figure below.

Fluid element under a shear force

 FLUID PROPERTIES
Every fluid has certain characteristics by which its physical
conditions may be described.

We call such characteristics as the fluid properties.

Specific Weight
Mass Density
Viscosity
Vapor Pressure
 Properties involving the Mass or Weight of the Fluid
Specific Weight, g
The gravitational force per unit volume of fluid, or simply “weight
per unit volume”.
- Water at 20 oC has a specific weight of 9.79 kN/m3.

Mass density or Specific mass (ρ): The “mass per unit volume” is
mass density. Hence it has units of kilograms per cubic meter.

- The mass density of water at 4 oC is 1000 kg/m3 while it is 1.20

kg/m3 for air at 20 oC at standard pressure.
Mass density or Specific mass (ρ):
Weight density or Specific weight (γ):
 Specific Gravity, S
• The ratio of specific weight of a given liquid to the specific
weight of water at a standard reference temperature (4 oC)is
defined as specific gravity, S.
• The specific weight of water at atmospheric pressure is 9810
N/m3.

• The specific gravity of mercury at 20 oC is

133 kN/m3
S Hg  13.6
9.81 kN/m3
Specific Gravity, S
 Example 1
Worked example
Calculate specific weight, mass density, specific volume and
specific gravity of a liquid having a volume of 4m3 and
weighing 29.43 kN. Assume missing data suitably.

Assignment
[Link] specific weight, density, specific volume and
specific gravity and if one liter of Petrol weighs 6.867N.
[Link] gravity of a liquid is 0.7 Find i) Mass density ii)
specific weight. Also find the mass and weight of 10 Liters of
liquid.
VISCOSITY
 Kinematic Viscosity
• Many fluid mechanics equations contain the variables of
- Viscosity, m
- Density, r
So, to simplify these equations sometimes use kinematic
viscosity (n)

Terminology
Viscosity, m
 N .s / m 2
   m 2 / s Absolute viscosity, m
 kg / m 3
Dynamic viscosity, m
Kinematic Viscosity, n
 Other viscosity highlights
• Viscous resistance is independent of the pressure in the
fluid.

• Viscosity is a result of molecular forces within a fluid.

• For liquid, cohesive forces decrease with increasing
temperature → decreasing μ
• For gas, increasing temperature → increased
molecular activity & shear stress: increasing μ
 Viscosity
• Effect of Pressure on Viscosity of fluids: Pressure has very little or no
effect on the viscosity of fluids.
♦ Effect of Temperature on Viscosity of fluids:
[Link] of temperature on viscosity of liquids: Viscosity of liquids is
due to cohesive force between the molecules of adjacent layers. As
the temperature increases cohesive force decreases and hence
viscosity decreases.
2. Effect of temperature on viscosity of gases: Viscosity of gases is due
to molecular activity between adjacent layers. As the temperature
increases molecular activity increases and hence viscosity increases.
 Vapor Pressure
• As the pressure above the surface of the liquid is reduced, at some
point, there will be vaporization of the liquid.
• If the reduction in pressure is continued vaporization will also
continue.
• If the reduction in pressure is stopped, vaporization continues until
vapors of the liquid exert certain pressure which will just stop the
vaporization.
• This minimum partial pressure exerted by the vapors of the liquid
just to stop vaporization is called Vapor Pressure of the liquid.
• If the pressure over the surface goes below the vapor pressure, then,
there will be vaporization.
• But if the pressure above the surface is more than the vapor pressure
then there will not be vaporization unless there is heating.