5.

1 Unit V

DIGESTION
 • Digestion is a process in which complex food
material is converted into simple absorbable form by
Mechanical and chemical methods.
The process is divided into two main types:

A. Mechanical digestion

B. Chemical digestion
 MECHANICAL DIGESTION
• The Mechanical / Physical process that tears,
grinds and mashes large food particles into
smaller pieces.

Mechanical digestion involves

· Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
· Churning of food in the stomach
· Segmentation in the small intestine
 CHEMICAL DIGESTION
• The process that breaks large food molecules into
smaller molecules using enzymes.

 Chemical Digestion involves

· Enzymes break down food molecules into their
building blocks
· Each major food group uses different enzymes
· Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
· Proteins are broken to amino acids
· Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
Which type of digestion is the following?

1. Chewing a fruit? -

2. Saliva breaking the fruit down into molecules of glucose? -

3. Your tongue breaking pieces of a hamburger apart?

4. Pepsin (an enzyme) in your stomach breaking the

hamburger into amino acids?
 Tasks of Digestive System:

1. Ingestion = Food enters system (mouth)

2. Digestion =
Mechanical Breakdown = Food physically broken down
Chemical Breakdown = Food broken down via enzymes

3. Absorption = Nutrients from digestive cavity into body

through blood
4. Egestion = Indigestible material cleared
· Nutrient – substance used by the body for
growth, maintenance, and repair
· Categories of nutrients
· Carbohydrates: simple sugars, starches, fiber
· Lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, fatty acids
· Proteins: amino acids
· Vitamins
· Mineral
· Water
Nutrition: Process of acquiring / processing nutrients into
usable form
Measured in calories (energy required to raise 1 g of
water 1°C)
• Calorie = 1000 calories (kilocalorie)
• Human at rest = 1550 Calories burned / day
Nutrient Classifications:

1) Carbohydrates:
• Energy source (~ 46% for humans)
• Body cells burn glucose (some exclusively)
• Energy storage (short-term): Glycogen (liver / muscles)
• Obtained via animal products (e.g. muscle) and plants (starch)

2) Lipids:
• Energy source (~ 38% for humans)
• Energy storage (long-term): Fats
• 1 pound = 3600 Calories (Carbs = 1600 Calories / pound)
• Hydrophobic; no excess water storage
• Provide building materials (e.g. phospholipids, cholesterol)
3) Proteins:
• Energy source (~ 16% for humans)
• Urea: Byproduct of protein breakdown
• Provide building materials (amino acids)
• Essential amino acids: Can not be synthesized by body (9 / 20 amino acids

4) Minerals :
• Structural material (e.g. calcium, iron, iodine)
• Assist in physiological functions (e.g. sodium, potassium, calcium)
5) Vitamins (Organic compounds - diverse group):
• Water-soluble: Cleared from body (urine)
• Vitamin C = Maintenance of connective tissues
• B-vitamin complex = Coenzymes
• Water-insoluble: Stored in body (fat)
• Vitamin A = Produces visual pigments
• Vitamin K = Regulates blood clotting

Nutrient Acquisition:
• Herbivore = Eat plants
• Carnivore = Eat animals
• Omnivore = Eat plants and animals
 Control of Digestive Activity
· Mostly controlled by reflexes via the parasympathetic
nerves
· Chemical and mechanical receptors are located in
organ walls that trigger reflexes
· Stimuli include:
· Stretch of the organ
· pH of the contents
· Presence of breakdown products
· Reflexes include:
· Activation or inhibition of glandular secretions
· Smooth muscle activity
 STRUCTURE OF THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
• MOUTH
• ESOPHAGUS
• STOMACH
• SMALL INTESTINE
• LIVER
• PANCREAS
• GALLBLADDER
• LARGE INTESTINE
• ANUS
 MOUTH
• Breaks down starch into sugar
• Teeth and tongue are important in mechanical
digestion.
• Salivary glands important in chemical digestion.

•Boundaries are:

- Lips (Anteriorly)

- Cheeks (Laterally)

- Palate (Superiorly)
 Teeth
Canines

• Four types of teeth:

1. Incisors Incisors
2. Canines
3. Pre – Molars
4. Molars

Premolar

Molar
 Grasping
Biting and and Tearing
Cutting

Incisor Canine

Grinding Grinding
and and
Crushing Crushing
Pre - Molar Molar
 Digestion in mouth:

• When food is taken into mouth it is masticated, moved

around the mouth by tongue and it is moistened by
saliva and formed into soft mass called bolus.

• Secretions of saliva is controlled by sympathetic and

para sympathetic nerve supply.
• The salivation occurs in two ways
• one is unconditioned reflex response to the presence
of an a object such as food in the mouth.
• Conditioned reflex response is something which has
been learned from the previous experience. The sight,
the smell etc.,

SALIVA
• The fluid released when your mouth
waters.
• Composition of saliva:

• It is secreted in the mouth by three pairs of salivary

glands. Namely parotid gland, sub maxillary and sub
lingual gland.

• It consists of – 99% water,

• inorganic salts like, NaCl, KCl, NaHPo4, CaCo3,CaPo4 etc.,

• Mucous; Glycoprotein

• Enzymes: ptyalin or salivary alpha amylase.

• Functions of saliva:

• Digestion: Saliva contains starch splitting enzyme salivary alpha amylase

(Ptyalin), starch + ptyalin gives maltose.

• Lubrication of food.

• Protection of mouth cavity.

• Speech and cleaning.

• Taste

• Anti bacterial action (Lysozyme)

• In humans about 1500 ml of saliva is secreted per day.

 Mouth
• Chemical and
mechanical digestion.
• Food is chewed
(masticated)
mechanically.
• A bolus (lump) is formed
with saliva and the
tongue.
• Mouth
– Mechanical digestion
• teeth
– breaking up food
– chemical digestion
• saliva
– amylase
» enzyme digests starch
– mucin
» slippery protein (mucus)
» protects soft lining of digestive system
» lubricates food for easier swallowing
– buffers
» neutralizes acid to prevent tooth decay
– anti-bacterial chemicals
» kill bacteria that enter mouth with food
 Epiglottis

– Flap of cartilage
– Swallowing (Allows food to go down the esophagus)
– Closes trachea (windpipe) when swallowing
– Food travels down esophagus
 Pharynx
• Present at the
back of the
throat.

• Is approximately
15cm long.

• During swallowing, food is directed from pharynx

to esophagus (away from respiratory tract).
 The Pharynx
• The pharynx is the passageway from the nose and
mouth to the respiratory tract and esophagus
• Larynx- passage for air, closes when we swallow.
 ESOPHAGUS
• A muscular tube that
connects the mouth to the
stomach lined with mucus
to allow food to be moved
along
• The esophagus is a
passageway from the
pharynx to stomach
• Contains two sphincters:
Upper and Lower esophageal
sphincters (controls flow)

• Upper sphincter is skeletal

(voluntary), lower sphincter is
smooth muscle (involuntary)

• Peristaltic waves move food

from pharynx to stomach.
 Swallowing:
• It is reflex response that is triggered by different
impulses in the trigeminal, glassopharyngeal and
vagus nerve.

• It occurs in after
mastication, swallowing is
initially voluntary.

• Subsequently individual
has no further control and
it becomes involuntary.
 Peristalsis

• Series of involuntary
wave-like muscle
contractions which
move food along the
digestive tract
Peristalsis & Segmentation
 Stomach
• A j-shaped muscular pouch

• Food is temporarily stored

here.

• Gastric juices are secreted.

• Has layers of muscle that

line the inside.

• Mechanically and
chemically breaks down
food.
 The Stomach
– The stomach stores food, and mixes and mechanically and
chemically digests it
– The stomach also secretes digestive juices
• Pepsin: digests protein
• Hydrochloric acid (acidic pH(2), required for pepsin
activity, and to kill ingested bacteria)
• Mucus: protects the stomach wall
– Partially digested food: chyme
– Little absorption occurs in the stomach (exceptions: alcohol,
aspirin…)
 Histology of the Stomach
• Cell types:
– Chief cells: produce Pepsinogen (inactive pepsin)
– Parietal cells: produce HCl and intrinsic factor (absorption
of vitamin B12; important in RBC maturation)
– “Endocrine” cells:
• G cells: gastrin
• D cells: somatostatin (paracrine)
• Enterochromaffin-like cells: histamine (paracrine)
Secretion of Gastric Juice:

• There are two phases of gastric juice secretion:

• I) Cephalic phase: The flow of juice occurs before food
reaches to the stomach and is due to reflex stimulation of the
vagus nerves following site, smell and taste of food.

• II) Gastric Phase: when stimulated by the presence of food

( Mainly protein)
 1. Cephalic Phase of 2. Gastric Phase of Gastric
Gastric Secretion Secretion (approx 60% of
(approx. 30% of total) total)
(initiated by brain) (initiated by gastric events)

vagus nerve
vagus
nerve

FOOD

HCl HCl

Distension
Peptides

circulation circulation
G
G
gastrin
gastrin
Composition and functions of gastric juice:

• Gastric juice normally a clear, pale yellow fluid of high

acidity with a pH of 1.0

• Gastric gland secretes about 2500 ml daily.

• It consists of water(97-99%),

• HCl- It acidifies the food and stops the action of ptyalin

and it converts inactive pepsinogen into active pepsin.

• The acid kills bacteria ingested with the food.

 Accessory Organs
• Pancreas
• Liver
• Gall Bladder
 Pancreas
• An organ which secretes both digestive enzymes
(exocrine) and hormones (endocrine)
• Pancreatic juice digests all major nutrient types.
• The pancreatic juice is non viscous alkaline(7.5-8.0)
it contains water, electrolytes (Na+, k+, Cl- and
HCO3- etc.,)
 Pancreas
• Digestive enzymes Endocrine Secretions by
– digest proteins Islet of Langerhans
Alpha cells - Glucagon
• trypsin, chymotrypsin Beta cells – Insulin
– digest starch Delta cells – Somatostatin
• amylase
• Buffers
– neutralizes acid from
stomach
 Gall bladder
• Pouch structure located near the liver which
concentrates and stores bile.
• Joins to common Hepatic duct
through Cystic duct.
 LIVER
• The largest and heaviest organ inside the body; it
breaks down substances and eliminates nitrogen from
the body.

• Produces bile

• Bile is a bitter, greenish-yellow alkaline fluid, stored in the

gallbladder between meals and upon eating is discharged
into the duodenum.
Bile emulsifies lipids (Physically breaks apart FATS)
• Bile duct – a long tube that carries BILE.
• The top half of the common bile duct is associated
with the liver, while the bottom half of the common
bile duct is associated with the pancreas, through
which it passes on its way to the intestine.
• Bile and its salts:

• It is alkaline, yellow to green, bitter fluid (pH 8-8.6).

• In human yellowish green in color, in carnivore

golden yellow, in herbivore green.

• Liver secretes the bile 0.5-1.0 Lt per day and it is

stored in gall bladder.
• Composition and function:

• It contains water (86%), mineral salts (Cl, Co3. PO4,

Na, K, NaHCO3 etc.,),

• Bile salts –
• Potassium taurochlorate (Bile acids + taurine) and
sodium gylco chlorate (Bile acids + gyacin) and they
are used in emulsification of fats.

• It also helps in absorption of fat soluble vitamins

(ADEK).
 Bile contains colors from old red Blood
• Bile Pigments: cells collected in liver =
iron in RBC rusts & makes feces brown

• These are waste products formed by the

worn-out erythrocytes, no functional
importance.

• Bilirubin (golden yellow) and biliverdin (green).

• Mucus, it acts as buffer and lubricant.

• It also helps in removal of toxins and various

inorganic substances like Zn, Cu, Hg, drugs etc.,
 SMALL INTESTINE
• The part where most chemical
digestion and absorption occurs
here.
• The small intestine has three
parts (duodenum, jejunum, and
ileum)
• The bile duct (from liver) and
pancreatic duct (digestive
juices) empty into the
duodenum.
• 6m, with 300 sq.m surface area
• Specialized structures (villi,
microvilli) increase the surface
area of the small intestine, aiding
absorption.

• Secretions from the liver,

pancreas and small intestine
break food into simple sugars
and amino acids.

• Simple sugars and proteins are

absorbed into the inner lining.
 Intestinal Digestion
• The Chyme passes
into duodenum from
pyloric stomach

• The pancreatic and

bile ducts open in the
duodenum

• High alkaline content of pancreatic and bile

secretions neutralize the chyme and changes
the pH to alkaline.
 Absorption through villi & microvilli
• Much absorption is thought to occur directly through the wall
• Almost 90% of our daily fluid intake is absorbed in the small
intestine.
• Villi : Fingerlike projections that increase the surface area of the
small intestines. These absorb nutrients.
 LARGE INTESTINES
• The last section of the digestive system where
water is absorbed from food and the remaining
materials is eliminated from the body

• Large intestines contain bacteria that produce

vitamins.
 Large Intestine
• These are undigestible solids (fibers) pass through
the large intestine.

• It secrets mucine which

lubricates the faeces and
ease their passage to the
rectum and anus.

• Vitamins K and B are

reabsorbed with the water.
• Absorption of water helps to maintain the body
water balance.

• use ~9 liters of water every

day in digestive juices
• > 90% of water reabsorbed
– if not enough water absorbed
» diarrhea
– If too much water absorbed
» Constipation

• Some drugs and mineral salts also be absorbed.

 You’ve got company!
• Living in the large intestine is a community of
helpful bacteria

– Escherichia coli (E. coli)

• Produce vitamins
– vitamin K; B vitamins
• Generate gases
– by-product of bacterial metabolism
– methane, hydrogen sulfide
 Rectum
• RECTUM – A short section at the end of the large intestine
where waste material is compressed into a solid form
before being eliminated through anus.

• ANUS –The opening at the end of the digestive system

through which wastes are eliminated.
 Appendix
• Vestigial Organ
• Appendicitis – an inflammation of the appendix
• Common treatment is removal of the appendix via surgery
 Digestion & Absorption
of Carbohydrate, Protein and Lipids
 Digestion of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen

Source : Cereals, potato, rice, etc...

• Monosaccharide – Glucose, Fructose & Galactose

• Oligosaccharide – Sucrose, Maltose & Lactose
•Polysaccharide – Starch, Cellulose & Glycogen

 The Polysaccharides & Oligosaccharides are broken down by

Carbohydrases into Monosaccharides and absorbed by the body.
 Digestion in oral Cavity :

 Salivary amylase (Ptyalin) breakdowns starch into Oligosaccharides

Salivary Amylase
Starch Maltose + Isomaltose +Dextrin

 By the mechanism of chewing, the salivary amylase gets a bit more

time to digest the starch

Digestion in Stomach :

 No digestion of Carbs in stomach

Salivary amylase can not

function in stomach because it is
inactivated by Hcl produced by
stomach
Digestion in Small Intestine :
 Pancreas release Pancreatic amylase into Duodenum
It is highly concentrated in duodenum, so that within 15 minutes
Starch is converted into Maltose, Isomaltose & Dextrins

Pancreatic Amylase
Starch Maltose + Isomaltose +Dextrin
Maltase & Isomaltase
Maltose + Isomaltose +Dextrin Glucose
Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Fructose
 Amylase, Sucrase, Maltase, Isomaltase & Lactase are produced by
brush borders of enterocytes
Absorption of Carbohydrates

 The end product of carbohydrate digestion

are Monosaccharides

Absorption of monosaccharides takes place

in duodenum & upper jejunum

The monosaccharides are absorbed by

Enterocytes

Monosaccharides enter into capillaries of

villi and through Hepatic portal vein reaches
liver where it is converted into Glycogen and
stored and spent as ATP
Excess glucose is converted into fat

In normal diet 80% of end product is Glucose, 10% is Fructose

Maximum absorption of glucose by the body is 120g/hr

 Digestion of Proteins
 Proteins are made up of Amino acids i.e. Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Nitrogen and usually Sulphur

Source : Meat, Milk, Egg, Beans, Peas, etc...

End product of all proteins are amino acids

On hydrolysis proteins break into proteoses, peptones & peptides
Enzymes which hydrolyse proteins are called proteases
Amount of protein requirement to body – 0.5-0.7 g/kg of body weight
10 – 30 g of protein per day is derived from the digestive juices, equal
amount of proteins are derived from desquamated cells
Digestion in Stomach :
Hcl helps to kill bacteria and other harmful bacteria present in food
Hcl also activates proteases

Hcl
Prorenin Renin
(inactive) (active)

Hcl
Pepsinogen Pepsin
(inactive) (active)

Renin
Milk casein Pracasein

Paracasein + Ca++ Calcium paracaseinate

Pepsin
Calcium paracaseinate Peptones & Proteoses
Digestion in Small Intestine :
 All pancreatic juices acts only in alkaline medium
 Bile juice converts the acidic medium food to alkaline
Enterokinase
Trypsinogen Trypsin
(inactive) (active)

Trypsin
Peptones & Proteoses Peptides (Small amino acids)
DNases
DNA Deoxyribonucleotides
RNases
RNA Ribonucleotides

 In predatory animals, trypsin can hydrolyse fibrinogen of blood

to fibrin leading to blood coagulation
Trypsin
Fibrinogen Fibrin
 Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin
(inactive) (active)

Chymotrypsin
Milk casein Pracasein

Paracasein + Ca++ Calcium paracaseinate

Absorption of Proteins
 Absorbed by the villi of enterocytes
through active transport and
transported to liver by Hepatic Portal
Vein

 Proteins are rebuilt andused to form

Muscle protein, Connective fibers,
Haemoglobins, Antibodies & Enzyme
receptors
 Digestion of Lipids (Fats)
 Lipids are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen (in very less
amount)
 Lipids are of two types – Fats & Oils

 Source – Adipose tissue of animals, vegetable oils

 The lipids are immiscible in water

 Bile salts breaks down the bigger water immiscible molecules of
fats into smaller water miscible fat droplets. This process is
known as Emulsification

 The end product of lipids are fatty acids & monoglycerides

Digestion in Stomach :

 Gastric lipase - Very little digestion in because high acidity (Hcl) of

stomach prevents emulsification of fats

Digestion in Small Intestine :

The first step in digestion

of lipids is Emulsification

 Pancreatic lipase (Steapsin) splits off

the fatty acids at 1- & 3- positions in the
Triglyceride

 TGs are hydrolyzed to a mixture of

free fatty acid and 2 Monoglycerides
 Cholesterol esterase cleaves fatty acids from ester linkages,
producing fatty acids and cholesterol

 Phospholipase acts on 2- positions in phoshoplipids,

producing fatty acids and lysophospholipids

Micelle
The digested particles i.e. Free fatty acids, 2 Mnoglycerides,
Cholesterol, Lysophospholipids binds with bile salt to form micelle
(about 5nm in size)
 Absorption of Lipids

 Fats are absorbed by Lacteals (Modified lymphatic vessels)

and directly go to liver

 Fats are converted into acetic acid in liver and used in making
Myelin sheeth, insulate, Cushion and protect body organs by
forming subcutaneous fats.

 Excess fat is stored as visceral fat

 Every cell membrane is made up of fats (Phospholipid bilayer)

Hormonal regulation of Enzyme Secretion
1.Gastrin (Gastric & intestinal) :
 It is released by G cells of stomach , in response to the
presence of food.
 Gastrin secretion is inhibited by accumulation of acid in
stomach.

Functions of Gastrin
 Increases secretion of HCl and Pepsinogen
 Enhances gastric motility & ileal motility
 Constricts lower esophageal sphincter and relaxes pyloric
sphincter
 Increases the secretion of gastric mucosa
2. Secretin :

 It is released by the S cells in the duodenal wall, in

response to acidic Chyme entering the small intestine.

Functions of Secretin
 Stimulates pancreatic juice secretion and bile secretion
 Inhibits secretion of gastrin to reduce amount of acid
being produced
 Promotes normal growth and maintenance of pancreas
 Enhances efect of CCK
3. Cholecystokinin (CCK) :
 It is released by the enteroendocrine CCK cells in mucosa
of small intestine, in response to partially digested food
entering the small intestine.

Functions Cholecystokinin (CCK)

 Stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice
 Causes contraction of Gall bladder and relaxes the
Hepatopancreatic ampulla (sphnicter of oddi) to release
Bile juice
 Inhibits gastric secretions and motility
 Enhances the effect of Secretin
4. Gastric inhibitory peptides (GIP):

 It is scereted by enteroendocrine K-Cells, in response

to food in intestine.

Functions of GIP

 Inhibits secretion of acid in stomach

 Stimulates insulin release by pancreas
 Also known as glucose dependent insulinotrophic peptide
as it stimulates insulin when glucose is high in blood