Thinking & Problem
Solving
Unit 4
Ref: Cognitive psychology by Galotti,
Kellogs, Reigller & Sternberg
Thinking
Is defined as going beyond the
information given – Bruner.
Itis a complex and high level skill
that fills up gaps in the evidence
– Bartlett.
Itis a process of searching
through a problem space – Newell
and Simon
Thinking
Can be focused or unfocused .
Focused thinking – begins with a
clear thinking point and has a
specific goal.
Unfocused thinking – is like day
dreaming or unintentionally
calling to mind a number of
different and loosely related
Introspection
Isthe detailed, concurrent and
non judgemental observation of
the contents of one’s
consciousness as one works on a
problem.
Types of thinking
Directed thinking
it is goal oriented and rational.
Requires clear and well defined goals.
Undirected thinking or wandering
thoughts
it is not goal oriented or rational.
Sometimes this type of thinking leads to
insightful answers.
Helps in creative thinking and to solutions to
problems that are poorly defined.
Types of thinking
Reproductive thinking – application of
tried and true paths to a solution.
Thinker reproduces a series of steps that
are known to yield a workable answer by
using rote memory.
Productive thinking – involves insight
and creativity.
Ill
defined problems often require
undirected and productive thinking.
Problem Solving
“Problem-solvingas search”
Each problem has:
◦ an initial state
◦ a goal state:
◦ a set of operators (actions that change
the current state into a new state)
◦ a path constraint
◦ a problem space: set of all possible paths
Well defined vs. ill defined
Problems
Well defined: Ill defined
Examples: Examples:
◦ geometry proofs, ◦ finding a perfect mate,
◦ logical puzzles ◦ writing a great novel
a clearly specified goal not obvious when a goal
(clear criterion on has been reached,
whether the goal has
been achieved )
Not obvious which is the
Necessary information is relevant information
spelled out in the
statement of the
problem
A sample well-defined
problem:
The Tower of Hanoi
Goal: move the tower from the left peg to the rightmost peg,
Restrictions:
- never placing a larger disk on top of a smaller one
- only move one disk at a time.
Problem space: the set of all states that can be
achieved during the course of solving a problem.
Classic problems and general
methods of solution
Domain – specific problem
solving approaches – they only
work for a limited class of problems.
Generate and test technique- a
problem solving strategy in which
the solver enumerates or generates
possible solutions and then tries
each to see if it constitutes a
solution.
Limitations
Loses its effectiveness very
rapidly when there are many
possibilities and when there is no
particular guidance over the
generation process.
Means ends analysis
A problem solving strategy in
which the solver compares the
goal to the current state, then
chooses a step to reduce
maximally the difference
between them.
Itis a problem solving strategy
that arose from the work on
problem solving by Newell and
Inmeans ends analysis, one solves a problem
by considering the obstacles that stand
between the initial problem state and the
goal state.
The elimination of these obstacles are then
defined as simpler subgoals to be achieved.
When all the subgoals have been achieved –
when all the obstacles are out of way- then
the main goal of interest has been achieved.
Because the sub goals have been called up by
the need to solve this main goal, means ends
analyis can be viewed as a search strategy in
which the long range goal is always kept in mind
to guide problem solving.
Inmeans ends analyses, the problem solver
begins by envisioning the end or the ultimate
goal then determines the best strategy for
attaining the goal in his current situation.
Eg.One wishes to drive from Chennai to Mysore,
in minimum possible time, then one chooses the
route that minimized the time to cover it.
Working backward
A problem solving technique that
identifies the final goal and the steps, in
reverse order, that are necessary to
reach to the goal.
Working backward often involves
establishing sub goals so it functions
similarly to means ends analysis.
Eg.Used in chessboard, crossword,
verbal arithmetic, Sudoku, maze puzzles.
Reasoning by analogy
Originally proposed by Duncker – 1945.
Isa problem solving that employs an analogy
between the current problem and another
problem that has already been solved.
The perceived similarities are used on a basis
to infer some further similarity that has yet to
be observed.
Eg.Metaphor, models in science, precedent
and analogy in legal reasoning.
Problem Solving Stages
1. Problem identification
2. Definition of problem
3. Constructing a strategy for
problem solving
4. Organizing information about a
problem
5. Allocation of resources
6. Monitoring problem solving
7. Evaluating problem solving
Problem solving stages
We engage in problem solving when we
need to overcome obstacles to answer a
question or to achieve a goal.
Successful problem solving may involve
occasionally tolerating some ambiguity
regarding how best to proceed.
One may have to go back and forth the
steps or change their order or skip or
add steps as appropriate.
Types of problems - Mayer
Transformation problems –
presents the solver with a goal
state.
The solver must find the proper
strategies or moves that will
transform initial state into goal
state.
Eg. Tower of Hanoi Problem
Arrangement problems
Involves presentation of all the
necessary elements to solve the
problem.
Solvermust figure out how the
elements are to be arranged.
Eg. KNGI – rearrange the letters to
form another correct word.
Key: KING
Induction problems
Solver is given a series of
examples or instances and must
figure out the pattern or rules
that relates to the instances.
Eg.Take a look at the following
number sequences: 2-4-6-8-10-?
What is the next number in the
sequence?
Key: 12
Deduction problems
Premises or conditions are given and the
solver must determine whether a conclusion
fits these premises.
Deductionand inductions are forms of
everyday thinking.
Eg.
Premise 1- All professors are caring
people
Premise 2- All caring people are good
Conclusion - All professors are good
Would you accept the conclusion?
Divergent problems
Requires the solver to generate
as many solutions as possible to
a given problem.
Eg. Think of a many uses for a
brick as you can.
