Problem Solving

and Creativity
FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING
Lesson 4: Problem Solving and Creativity
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
• describe problem solving and creativity;
• explain the stages /processes of problem solving and
creativity;
• cite situations manifesting barriers to problem solving and
creativity;
• differentiate common problem-solving strategies;
• determine the role of transfer of learning in problem solving
and creativity;
• and cite classroom applications of theories related to
problem solving and creativity.
Problem Solving
Ana's food catering business has been profitable, as
there is no competitor. Lately, a new catering group
was put up, offering as good services similar to hers.
With the presence of the competitor, some clients
have shifted to the new provider. Ana inquires on
how to sustain her customers' loyalty.
Problem Solving
A problem arises when there is a difference between
where you are now and where you want to be. A
distinguishing feature of a problem is that there is a
goal to be reached through some action on your part,
but how to get there is not immediately apparent.
There is an obstacle or a gap between where you are
now and where you want to be (Robertson, 2015).
Problem Solving
A necessary element of a problem is the presence of
an obstacle or block toward the attainment of that
goal. For this reason, problem-solving happens when
an individual strives to eliminate the obstacle that
hinders the attainment of the desired goal. "If no
obstacle hinders progress toward a goal, attaining
the goal is no problem" (Reese, 1994).
Elements of a Problem Scenario

Current State Block/Obstacle Desired Goal

Problem Solving
Problem solving refers to cognitive processing
directed at achieving a goal for which the
problem. solver does not initially know a
solution method (Mayer, 2013).
Four Major Elements
(Mayer, 1992; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006)

1.Cognitive. Problem solving occurs within the

problem solver's cognitive system and can only be
inferred indirectly from the problem solver's
behavior (including biological changes,
introspections, and actions during problem
solving).
2.Process. Problem solving involves mental
computations in which an operation is applied to a
mental representation, sometimes resulting in the
creation of new mental representation
Four Major Elements
(Mayer, 1992; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006)

3. Directed. Problem solving is aimed at achieving a

goal.

4. Personal. Problem solving depends on the

existing knowledge of the problem solver so that
what is a problem for one problem solver may not be
a problem for someone who already knows a solution
method.
Types of Problems

WELL-DEFINED ILL-DEFINED
• Robertson (2015) • An ill-defined problem,
described a well- meanwhile, is one where
defined problem as the initial state of the
one that "provides problem is given but
all the information what the goal state looks
required to solve it." like is not provided
(Robertson, 2015).
Types of Problems

WELL-DEFINED ILL-DEFINED

• Jonassen (1997) • It is typically situated in and

emergent from a specific
considered it as a problem
context, where an aspect or
requiring the application aspects of the problem
of a definite number of scenario are not well
concepts, rules, and specified, the problem
principles being studied to descriptions are not definite,
a constrained problem or the information needed to
situation. solve it is not expressed in
the problem. statement (Chi
& Glaser, 1985).
Types of Problems

WELL-DEFINED ILL-DEFINED

• "You notice that the

population of your
4+3=7 town is tremendously
increasing, and you
are alarmed of the
consequences. What
could you do?"
Approaches to Problem Solving

Behaviorist approach, reproducing a previous

behavior to solve a problem.
Approaches to Problem Solving
The Gestaltist approach to problem solving is a
productive process. Kohler's experiments with apes
underscored the role of insight in the restructuring of a
person's representation of the problem. As the
individual ponders upon how to solve a problem, a
flash of an idea comes to mind, which eventually
provides the best solution to the problem. This
situation illustrates the Eureka moment, the "moment
a person realizes or solves something"
The IDEAL model of the problem-solving process
Identify
problems and
opprotunities

Look back Define

and learn goals

Anticipate Explore
outcomes possible
and acts strategies
Two Main Strategies
1.Heuristic is a "rule of thumb, a mental shortcut that works
for solving a problem especially those about decision-
making tasks.
Newell and Simon (1972) suggested three general problem-
solving heuristics for moving from a given state to a goal
state:
a. Random trial and error involves randomly selecting a legal
move and applying it to create a new problem state and
repeating that process until the goal state is reached.
Random trial and error may work for simple problems but
is not efficient for complex ones
Two Main Strategies
b. Hill climbing involves selecting the legal move that moves
the problem solver closer to the goal state. Hill climbing will
not work for problems in which the problem solver must take
a move that temporarily moves away from the goal as is
required in many problems.

c. The means-ends analysis involves creating goals and

seeking moves that can accomplish the goal. If a goal cannot
be directly accomplished, a sub-goal is created to remove
one or more obstacles.
Two Main Strategies
2. Algorithm, the use of a series of steps to solve a
problem. The elements of an algorithm include clarity of
what is to be done, defined inputs, outputs, results, and
preconditions. Computer programming is a classic
example using an algorithm. The use of "If... then..."
propositions tells the precondition for the next step to
progress. If the next step does not satisfy the condition,
it will not result in the expected goal. Doing the
standard algorithms for the fundamental operations in
Mathematics requires doing the same steps repeatedly
with each place value column in a given problem.
Two Main Strategies

For instance,
3012
+1224
4236

In teaching origami (the art of paper folding), steps

presented should be followed one at a time to arrive at the
correct art piece. When withdrawing money using the ATM
card, one needs to follow the electronic cues to succeed.
Barriers to Problem Solving
1. Mental set. The situation when the person
becomes fixated on the use of a strategy that
previously produced the right solution, but in the
new situation it is not the application. In
metacognitive thinking, this is conditional knowledge.
2. Functional fixedness. This is a phenomenon
when individuals fail to recognize that objects can
have other purposes, aside from the traditional use
they were made for.
Barriers to Problem Solving

3. Failure to distinguish relevant and irrelevant

information. This happens when a situation arises
during the analysis of a problem when an individual
cannot discern the relevant information needed in
planning the strategy to solve a problem. When the
irrelevant information is given more emphasis in the
process, it will lead to a wrong solution to the
problem.
Creativity in Problem Solving
What is creativity?

Plucker et al. (2004) defined creativity as "the

interaction among aptitude, process, and the
environment by which an individual or group
produces a perceptible product that is both novel and
useful as defined within a social context." The
definition underscores the role of aptitude, process,
product, novelty, and use.
Creativity in Problem Solving
What is creativity?
According to Plucker et al. (2004), aptitude
represents a dynamic set of characteristics (e.g.,
openness, tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility in
thinking, perseverance, motivation for creativity,
need for self-expression), as well as abilities
pertaining to the creative process, that can be
shaped by experience, learning, and training
(Grohman & Szmidt, 2013). Others call aptitude as
creative attitude.
Creativity in Problem Solving

Varied theories explain how creativity is

developed (Kozbelt et al., 2010). One is the
developmental theory, which advocates that
creativity develops over time (from potential to
achievement) It is mediated by an interaction of
person and environment. It emphasizes the influence
of the place and family structures the role of play
and support during the transitions.
Creativity in Problem Solving
Meanwhile, the cognitive theory of creativity states
that ideational thought processes are foundational to
creative persons and accomplishment. Individuals who
discern remote association and are good at
divergent /convergent thinking and conceptual combination
and metacognitive processes are likely to be more creative.
The stage and componential process of creativity point out
that creative expression proceeds through a series of stages
or components. The process can have linear and recursive
elements. It highlights the importance of preparation,
incubation and insight, and verification and evaluation in
creative thinking.
Creativity in Problem Solving
One of the first models of creativity was advanced
by Guilford (1967). He considered creativity divergent
thinking act. He claimed that creativity is the result of
several processes: fluency, flexibility, originality, and
elaboration.
Fluency is defined as the ability to produce a great
number of ideas or problem solutions in a short period.
In solving problems related to solid wastes, a learner
can give novel ideas on recycling a plastic water
container more than the other learners, which
demonstrates fluency
Creativity in Problem Solving
Flexibility is the ability to simultaneously propose a
variety of approaches to a specific problem. In recycling a
plastic water container, a learner can suggest many ways
of using them. It can be used as food container, wall
decoration, and insect trap, which shows that the learner
has flexibility of ideas.

Originality refers to the ability to produce new, original

ideas, as well as products If there is no other learner who
gave the same idea or product of another learner, that idea
is original, as there is only one learner who could think of
it.
Creativity in Problem Solving

Elaboration is the ability to systematize and

organize the details of an idea in one's head and
carry it out. If the learner could pick one solution to
solve a problem and give specific details to
implement the same, he or she is manifesting
elaboration.
Creativity in Problem Solving
The creative process follows certain stages
(Boden, 2002, Gabora, 2002, Sadler-Smith, 2015)
1. Preparation (Gathering Materials)
2. Incubation (Subconscious Working on the idea)
3. Illumination (Eureka, AHA, Lightbulb Moment)
4. Verification (Idea into Form)
 Preparation
(Gathering
Materials)

Incubation
(Subconscious
Working on the
idea)

Illumination
(Eureka, AHA,
Lightbulb
Moment)

Stages
of the Verification

Creative (Idea into

form)
Process
 Stages of Creative Process
Preparation is the initial stage of the creative process.
It involves becoming passionate about an idea, which
motivates you to gather materials (read, observe,
compare). The information gathered seeps to your
subconsciousness, eventually remaining there
momentarily.
Incubation, the period where you unconsciously
continues to work on the idea, but there is no active
attempt to solve the problem. The mind just wanders
until an idea takes form.
 Creativity in Problem Solving
Illumination, a sudden idea pops out in your mind. The
subconscious thoughts find the connection with the
consciousness, resulting in the Aha and Eureka moments.
Once the idea is concretized, it needs to be verified.
Verification, the final stage of the creative process,
involves working with the idea into a form that can be
tested and once proven, it could be communicated to
others.
Transfer of Learning in Problem
Solving and Creativity
Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity
Problem solving is made easier if the learner can retrieve
declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, and
conditional knowledge from the long-term memory. If the
problem-solving task requires convergent answers, problem
solving can be quite easy if the learner has mastered
algorithm techniques. Nevertheless, even if the problem-
solving tasks require divergent thinking, if there have been
experiences in the past that enabled the learner to answer
such task, solving them could be successfully done.
Transfer of Learning in Problem
Solving and Creativity

Transfer of learning
The phenomenon that past experiences in solving
problems are carried over or used in solving new
problems.
Transfer of Learning in Problem
Solving and Creativity
Categories:
1. Near transfer and far transfer.
When learners apply their knowledge and skills in situations
and contexts that are very close to those in which the
learning occurred, it is near transfer. When learners perform
a skill in a context very much different from the context it
was learned, it is far transfer (Johnson, 1995). Leaners find
it easier to add three-digit numbers after they have learned
the lesson (near transfer). However, they find difficulty
employing the same skill when the task is transformed into a
word problem solving (far transfer).
 Transfer of Learning in Problem
Solving and Creativity
2. Positive and negative transfer. When learners can use
their prior knowledge or experience in solving a new problem
situation, it is a positive transfer. When the previous
learning or skill obstructs the acquisition of a new skill or the
solving of a problem, it is negative transfer. Using a new
model of the same brand of Android mobile phone is easy as
the features are most likely the same (positive transfer).
However, when a new phone using IOS technology is bought,
there will be difficulty in using it the first time (negative
transfer).
Transfer of Learning in Problem
Solving and Creativity

3. Vertical transfer and lateral transfer. When

learners use their learning at a lower level to
perform a higher level of cognitive task, vertical
transfer occurs. It is the goal of the spiral
progression in the K to 12 curriculum. When learners
use the same skill to solve a related but different
problem of the comparable level of difficulty after
learning it, lateral transfer happens.
Transfer of Learning in Problem
Solving and Creativity

4. Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when

past learning or prior experience does not enhance or
hinder the acquisition of a new skill or in the solution
of a problem
Several theories explain how learning
is transferred from one situation to
another (Woolfolk, 2017)
The theory of identical elements by Thorndike
maintains that the quality of transfer depends on the
identical elements that are common in both past and
new situations. If the content, method, goal, and
attitude in the two situations are similar, the transfer
is facilitated.
Several theories explain how learning
is transferred from one situation to
another (Woolfolk, 2017)
The theory of generalization, developed by Judd,
states that skills learned are transferrable to other
situations. It argues that if the learner has fully
understood the lesson and mastered the competency,
there is a greater likelihood that such skill can be
transferred to a similar situation.
Several theories explain how learning
is transferred from one situation to
another (Woolfolk, 2017)
The theory of configuration, anchored on Gestalt
psychology, emphasizes the important role of
perception in the transfer of learning. It argues that
what is learned in one situation can be shifted
directly to another situation only when similarity in
content, method, or attitude of the two situations is
perceived by the learner.
Classroom Applications of Cognitive
Learning Theories
Teachers can benefit from the teaching principles associated with
cognitive learning theories. Along with problem solving, Woolfolk
(2017) recommended the following:
1. Ask students if they understand the problem. Let them
separate relevant from irrelevant information. Test their
awareness of the assumptions. Encourage them to visualize
the problem by diagramming or drawing it. Ask them to
explain the problem to someone else.
2. Encourage attempts to see the problem from different angles.
Suggest several different possibilities yourself, and then ask
students to offer some. Give students practice in taking and
defending different points of view on an issue.
 Classroom Applications of Cognitive
Learning Theories
3. Let students think; do not just hand them solutions. Offer
individual problems as well as group problems, so that each
student has the chance to practice. Give partial credit if students
have good reasons for "wrong" solutions to problems. If students
are stuck, resist the temptation to give too many clues. Let them
think about the issue overnight.
4. Help students to develop systematic ways of considering
alternatives. Tell them to think out loud as they solve problems.
Ask "What would happen if ?" Keep a list of suggestions.
5. Teach heuristics. Encourage them to use analogies to solve
problems.
Classroom Applications of Cognitive
Learning Theories
In teaching creativity, Woolfolk (2017) also recommended
the following strategies in teaching learners:

1. Accept and encourage divergent thinking Reinforce

attempts at unusual solutions to problems. even if the
final product is not perfect. Offer choices in topics for
projects or modes of presentation (written, oral, visual
or graphic, using technology).
Classroom Applications of Cognitive
Learning Theories
2. Tolerate dissent. Ask students to support dissenting
opinions. Make sure that nonconforming students receive
an equal share of classroom privileges and rewards.

3. Encourage students to trust their judgment. When

students ask questions that you think add answer,
rephrase or clarify the questions and direct them back to
the students. Give ungraded assignments from time to
time.
Classroom Applications of Cognitive
Learning Theories
4. Emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity in
some form. Avoid describing the feats of great artists or
inventors as if they were superhuman accomplishments.
Recognize creative efforts in each student's work. Have a
separate grade for originality on some assignments.
 Classroom Applications of Cognitive
Learning Theories
5. Provide time, space, and materials to support creative
projects. Here are some examples: collect "found materials
for collages and creations buttons, stones, shells, paper,
fabric, beads, seeds, drawing tools, clay- and try flea
markets and friends for donations. Have mirrors and
pictures for drawing faces. Make a well-lighted space
available where children can work on projects, leave them,
and come back to finish them. Follow up on memorable
occasions (field trips, news events, holidays) with
opportunities to draw, write, or make music.
Classroom Applications of Cognitive
Learning Theories
6. Be a stimulus for creative thinking. Use class
brainstorming sessions whenever possible. Model creative
problem solving by suggesting unusual solutions for class
problems. Encourage students to delay judging a particular
suggestion for solving a problem until all the possibilities
have been considered.
7. Capitalize on new technology. Ask the students to use
free apps t and share their ideas with others.
Classroom Applications of Cognitive
Learning Theories
To promote the transfer of learning, the following teaching -
learning strategies are helpful (Woolfolk, 2017 ):

1. Keep families informed about their child's curriculum so

they can support their learning. At the beginning of units
or major projects, send a letter summarizing the key
goals, a few of the major assignments, and some common
problems that students have in learning the material for
that unit. Ask parents for suggestions about how their
child's interests could be connected to the curriculum
topics.
Classroom Applications of Cognitive
Learning Theories

2. Give families ideas on how they might encourage their

children to practice, extend, or apply what they learn
from school. This strategy promotes a near transfer of
learning. Ask family members to include their children in
some projects that require school learning.
Classroom Applications of Cognitive
Learning Theories
3. Show connections between learning in school and life
outside of school. Ask families to talk about and show how
they use the skills their children are learning in their jobs,
hobbies, or community involvement projects.

4. Partner with families in practicing learning strategies.

Focus on one learning strategy at a time. Ask families to
simply remind their children to use a particular strategy for a
homework that week.
 Thank you!

RODALIE C. DINEROS