CHAPTER FIVE

5. Politics, Economy and Social Processes from

the early 16th to the end of the 18th Centuries
 Major developments of the period:
 Expansion of trade

 Conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and

Muslim Sultanates and foreign interventions

 Population movements of the Afar, the Somali,

the Argoba and the Oromo

 Religious expansions, interaction of peoples and

the resultant integration across ethnic and

religious diversities
 Historical development connected with the
Gondarine Period (1636-1769) and Zemene-
Mesafint (1769-1855) including the Yejju rule
(1786-1853)
 These contributed to the making of modern
1
Ethiopia and further realized through the
intermingling of peoples, economic
interdependence and political activities
CONT…
5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom
and the Sultanate of Adal,16th century
 Root cause of the conflicts/wars: Competition and struggle for
control over the trade routes.
 This competition was followed by a series of wars, which were
depicted as wars for religious supremacy in historical accounts of
Christian and Muslim clerics, which continued for over two
centuries.
 While mal-administration and exploitation of periphery made
military mobilization possible, religion provided ideological
justification for the wars between these two groups.
 Therefore, open wars fought between the Christian Kingdom and
the Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to 1543.
 As a prelude to this conflict, among the Muslim Sultanates,
internal strife, corruption and anarchy was intensified and a new
leadership was urgently called for. Such leadership came from
Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi.
 From the side of the Muslims, tehrefore Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim 2
al-Ghazi or Ahmad ‘Gragn’-Ahmad the ‘left hand’ provided the
leadership needed in the wars
CONT…
 Although the origins of Imam Ahmed, alias “the lefthanded,”
are obscure, he was born at Hubet an area located between
Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised by his devout Muslim kin in
one of the oases on the route to Zeila.
 Imam Ahmad was a rigorous and ardent believer of Islam. He
was a devout Muslim.
 He served as soldier under Garad Abun of Adal, calling for
Islamic Puritanism(self control & hard work rather than
importance of pleasure).

 Following the death of Garad Abun, Imam Ahmad started

calling for devotion to the teachings of Islam and immediately
he took power.
 After Imam Ahmad’s rise to power, the battles were not just
fought for control of the long-distance trade route going
through Zeila but mainly because there was environmental
pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists pushing to 3

approach Harar and the Christian Kingdom.

CONT…

 In his leadership he convinced, mobilized and united

the pastoral communities of the Afar, the Somali, the
Harla, Harari and others to confront the Christian
highland kingdom.
 Soon, Adal fell under Imam Ahmed’s army.
 In 1520 Imam Ahmed became strong militarily.
 Subsequently, he refused to pay tribute to the
Christian Kingdom and fighting started b/n the two
parties in 1527.
 The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the
territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama,
Hadiya and Kambata and the Christian Kingdom was
at risk.

4
CONT…

 From the side of the Christian Kingdom, in 1528

Lebne-Dengel mobilized large forces from his domain
and encamped about fifty kilometers east of what is
now Addis Ababa.
 But there were logistic and leadership problems
among this group.
 On the contrary, Imam Ahmed’s army managed
logistics problems with its small-sized army.
 The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership
characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics
with a unified command.
 As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army
was defeated in one of the most decisive engagement at
the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day
Mojo.
5
CONT…
 Engagement of women during the conflict:
 Bati Del Wanbara Mahfuz, the wife of Imam Ahmad was engaged in the
conflict.
 She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions and she is said to have
marched even in a state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules.
 Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and
present day Tigray respectively
 There was also the contribution of Seblewongel, the wife of Lebne-Dengel of
the Christian highland kingdom during the conflict ( in 1542).
 She is said to have participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542 when the army of the
Christian Kingdom lost almost half of the Portuguese soldiers.
 Consequences of the battle:
1. Imam Ahmad’s force controlled the territories of the Christian
Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb
Melash. Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast
including the Ethiopian interior.
2. The war made Lebne-Dengel to retreat and he finally died in
1540 being fugitive/in exile.
 External Support:
The Christian highland kingdom obtained support from Portugal. Thus, because
of the request made by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about four hundred Portuguese 6
soldiers, armed with matchlocks arrived in the court of the king in 1541.
The army was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da
Gama.
CONT…

 Similarly, Imam Ahmed had received Turkish musketeers, and

Gelawdiwos faced the wars this time with more intensity.
 Thus, in 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for
assistance and regional Ottoman authorities provided two hundred
Muslim musketeers and ten cannons.
 The 1543 engagement (The battle of Woyna-
Dega):
 Since the war b/n the two parties was not concluded, on the part of
the Christian kingdom, preparations were made for final
confrontation under the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-
1559).
 Thus, with the advice of his mother-Seble-Wongel, Gelawdewos
marched against the forces of Imam Ahmad.
 But in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in
today's southern Tigray. In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese
were killed and their leader Christopher da Gama was beheaded.
 Due to limited resources, Gelawdiwos employed hit and run
strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army.
 But Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous advantage of
easy mobility because they did not know where the attacks came
from. 7

 Then, on February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped

near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at
CONT…

 After the war, Gelawdiwos restored possession of almost all the northern
and central plateau.
 Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos and he
was tolerant towards the Muslim communities and he attempted to
promote national conciliation and the revival of smooth relations with the
Muslim world.
 The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns to
different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas. By the
early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom.
 In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state came from the
retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit
interlude, and Oromo advance into the center.
 But Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid was ready to
wage war against the Christian state for revenge.
 In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the
king himself.
 Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the
Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa.
 However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks
against him.
 Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend his terittory from
8
the Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama,
Enarya and the Oromo.
 The emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish forces, and
CONT,…
 Overall consequence of the Muslim-Christian kingdom
conflict:
[Link] human and material cost.
2. Both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom were weakened
and were unable to stop the Oromo population movement
3. The war had arguably resulted in cultural interaction among the
peoples of Ethiopia.
 Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by intermarriages
among peoples of the various cultural groups were one of these
manifestations in the long history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 NB. Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean
between Portugal and the Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities a global
dimension.
 Middle Eastern powers including Ottoman Empire who were the
intermediaries of the international trade were adversely affected by the
discovery of a new sea route to India by Vasco da Gama in 1498.
 They tried to counter the Portuguese encroachment into the East;
Portugal for its part began to look toward the Christian Kingdom of
Ethiopia as an ally, 9
 However, actual military alliance did not take place because Ethiopia was
not a sea power to give a meaningful maritime support to Portugal
against the Ottoman Turks.
CONT,…
5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
 The Orthodox church was weakened by the wars against the

sultanate of Adal.
 The destruction of property and deaths of its clergy hampered

the operation of the Church and therefore, its service as an

ideological arm of the state.
 Similarly, the war had impacted Islamic religious services among

the Muslim communities.

 The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an

alliance with Roman Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient

modern weaponry and training to restore its lost territories.
 In 1557, however, several Jesuit missionaries along with their
bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand
Catholicism.
 The leading members of the Jesuit mission who played key role in
efforts to evangelize the country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas
de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez. Spanish Jesuit,
Afonso Mendez ordered re-consecration of Orthodox priests and
10
deacons and rebaptism of the mass.
 Besides, he called for the suspension of Old Testament customs
such as male circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
CONT…
 Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez,
fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian saints
and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
 Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian
calendar to be adopted.
 The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility.
Even loyal followers of the emperor including his own son Fasiledas
(r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes initiated by the Jesuits.
 The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos
(r.1540-59), hoping that the rest of the society would follow suit.
 Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with the
missionaries, but he was not prepared to give in.
 Instead, he defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a
document entitled the Confession of Faith.
 The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4)
who was secretly converted into Catholicism.
 In 1612, Susenyos was converted into Catholicism and announced it
to be state religion later in 1622.
 In the meantime, in 1617-8 several anti-Catholic voices mounted
11
following the changes in liturgy and religious practice.
 He integrated the Oromo with the forces of central government to
consolidate his power and then stabilize the country.
CONT…
 King Susenyos’s reign was full of controversies, rebellions,
and repressions after 1625, and even the state came to the
verge of falling apart during his time.
 In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their
lives in one day.
 Finally, the Emperor abdicated the throne in favor of
Fasiledas (r.1632-1667), who countered the Catholic
transformation and restored Orthodox Christianity into a
state religion.
 By fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas
introduced a new policy called "Close-Door Policy", which
isolated the state from all Europeans for about a century
and a half.
 On the contrary, he adopted a policy of close diplomatic
relations with the Islamic world and formed an alliance with
the neighboring Muslim states.
 However, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions 12
and controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that
was divided into disputant sects and reached its peak
CONT…
 The sects were : Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in
eternity as a Divine Being the eternal birth and second,
born again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man
and perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo
(United).
 It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
 Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet
doctrine and accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of
Christ,
 But claimed that at the moment of his incarnation, when
he was born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him.
 This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
 Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace)
taught that Christ was first born in eternity as divine
being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and
anointed by Holy Ghost. 13
 This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
.
CONT…
5.3. Population Movements
 Historically, it was common in Ethiopia and the Horn to see People’s
movement from place to place due to different factors such as push
and pull factors or due to socio-political conditions which
involved military conflicts, drought and demographic factors.
 Population movements of the medieval period had extensive effects
including the integration and intermingling of peoples across ethnic
and religious lines also resulting in intermarriage of peoples.
 Specifically, this has resulted in intermarriage of peoples, change of
abode, original culture and evolution of new identities..
1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali
Causes:
1. Partly because of the military conflict of the Christian Kingdom and
the Sultanate of Adal in the late 15th and the early 16th centuries
2. Demographic pressure
 The Argoba:
 The Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and
Muslim state formation in the Horn.
14
 They were dominant group in the sultanate of Ifat and became the
center of Muslim resistance.
CONT…
 Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the sultanate of Shewa
moved further to the east as the result of the pressure from the
Christian Kingdom.
 The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant, became the
center of Muslim resistance.
 They also became integral part of Muslim resistance during the wars of
Imam Ahmed.
 Since the major caravan trade routes passed through Argoba territory,
Argoba became one of the areas of fighting during the time of Imam
Ahmad and this fighting forced the Argoba to scatter in different places
o The Afar:
Cause of their movement:
 Existence of drought in this area before 16th century.
 The Afar moved towards the east until they reached the middle Awash.
 Afar was the center of competition between the Christian Kingdom
and the Muslim sultanates because trade routes linking the ports in the
Horn passed through the Afar's territory.
 The wars pushed the Afar to move in different directions, however, in 15
the 16th century, their pastoral economy helped them to survive the
destructive effects of the wars.
CONT…
 The Somali:
 Exhibited competition for the control of trade routes
during the medieval period.
 Cause of their movement :
 Demographic pressure
 The Somali had given support to Imam Ahmad during
the conflict b/n the Christian kingdom and Imam Ahmad.
 But the Somali returned home following the defeat of
Imam Ahmed in 1543, hence, their movement was short
lived.

16
CONT…

[Link] System and the Oromo Population

Movement (1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System :
 is important to better understand the Oromo population
movement of the 16th century.
 Meaning:
 The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo
socially organized themselves, administered their affairs,
defended their territories, maintained law and order and
managed their economies.
 History of the Gadaa system:
 Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa centers
suggest that the system evolved from the earlier Cushitic age-set
social organization.
 It was stated that during the early 16 th century, the system fully
functioned because of which the Oromo were well organized.
 Besides, the Oromo is said to have practiced the Gadaa system 17
long before their 16th century movement.
CONT…
 Time computation and recording history was based on the
eight-years segment of time.
 In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa period;
5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation
and nine generations represented an era.
 Accordingly, the earliest eras of Gadaa but still obscure
were those of Bidiri Dhoqqe.
 Prior to the beginning of Gadaa Borana-Barentu around
1450 AD, the Oromo passed through known eras of Taya,
Tasaa, Munyo, Suftu, Maddile, Abroji, Dhittacha and Warra-
Daye (warden), each of which survived for an era.
 Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various eras
because of various internal and external factors.
 For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted
after interruption for nearly two generations.
 It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu that became the
18
central Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until
1900.
CONT…

 Values and how the Gadaa system had

worked:
 The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy
such as periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a
one-man rule.
 Representation of all lineages, clans and confederacies.
 Means of socialization, education, maintenance of peace
and order, and social cohesion.
 It constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma
(compensation) and rakoo (marriage)
 The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-
grades and generation sets delineating members' social,
political, and economic responsibilities.
 The system provided a socio-political framework that
institutionalized relationship between seniors and juniors 19
and egalitarian relations among members of a grade.
CONT…
 Sons joined the first grade as members of Gadaa class
(generation class or set) forty years after their fathers
and were initiated into the next higher grade every
eight years
 The Gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head
of the government was known as Abba-Gadaa literally
“father of the period” who was assisted by several elected
representatives from among the generation set.
 These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba
Chaffe (head of the assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader),
Abba Sera (father of law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a
(father of treasury) and other councilors.
 In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played
indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the
ruling gadaa class.
 Gada has five Gadaa classes (generation sets).
 Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which 20
helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity.
CONT…
 Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-
pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale
(wives of Luba and Yuba) and cifire (wives of
Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have sacred
power.
 They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict

resolution, thanks-giving and others. The kalale were also

privileged to support and advise the ruling class
 Gadaa-grade, Age and Roles

[Link], birth-8 years, socialization

[Link], 9-16,
[Link], 17-24, military training, agriculture etc
[Link], 25-32, military service
5. Raba-Dori, 33-40, candidates for political power
[Link] 41-48, leaders of Gada government
[Link], 49 to 80,senior advisors, educators and rituals.
21
The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer
from one Gadaa class to the next every eight years.
TABLE : THE FIVE GADAA CLASSES
Fathers Sons

Melba Harmufa

Mudena Robale

Kilole Birmajii

Bifole Mul’ata

Michille Dulo

22
CONT…
B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-
1618)
 Causes:
 Natural and manmade factors.
 Natural factors include demographic pressure and
subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing
human and livestock population.
 Manmade factor:
 The conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates from the 13th to the 16th centuries might have
pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to leave the
lands they inhabited for other areas.
 In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo
were already organized under Borana and Barentu
confederacies.
23
 The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed
through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake
CONT…
 Some took westward and penetrated across the Bilatte
River to the southwest.
 Then they headed northwards to the lakes region of the Rift
Valley.
 From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
Accordingly, the first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) fought and
defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and
occupied Bali while Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of
Awash River.
 The Kilole (1538- 46) controlled Dawaro after defeating
Christian regiment Adal Mabraq while Bifole (1546- 54)
advanced to Waj and Erer.
 The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at
Dago, and Jan Amora forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur
Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
 The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and
Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc. In 1574, Sartsa
24
Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale
gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered by
defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force.
CONT…

 The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed

Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti
regiment. The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo,
Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
 In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1594-1602),
Melba (1603-10), and Mudena (1610-18) expanded to
West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while
others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba
and Majertin in Somalia.
 In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdom
and Muslim Sultanates, the organization of the Oromo
under the Gadaa system played crucial role in the
success of the Oromo population movement. In the
course of their movement into various regions, different
Oromo branches established Gadaa centers.
 Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando 25
(Arsi), Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna, Oda Bisil of Mecha and
Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa centers.
CONT..

 Gadaa devised effective resource allocation formula including

land.
 Land holding system to regulate resource and their interaction
among different clans is known as the qabiyye system.
 The system established rights of precedence (seniority) in
possession of land. Accordingly, place names were given the
names of pioneers as markers of qabiyye rights.
 Consequences of the Oromo population movement:
 It put an end to the wars between the Christian and Muslim states as well
as the southward expansion of the Christian highland kingdom.
 Resulted in integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious
background.
 The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms:
Guddifacha and Moggasa.
 Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this
system, the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a biological
child.
 Likewise, Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos and it was the
practice of incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan through oath of
allegiance with all the rights and obligations that such membership 26
entailed.
CONT..

 The adopted groups gained both protection and material

benefits.
 The process contributed to the social cohesions, national
integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
 The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-
cultural values and institutions.
 A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo
adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language.
 Likewise, the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and
traditions of the people with whom they came into
contact.

27
 CONT….

5.4. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central,

Southern and Western Regions
1. Peoples and States in the East
 Somali:

Economy-pastoralism
Earliest reference: lived south of their present territory at least as
early as the 12th century or 13th century.
 Historically, a council known as shir governed the society deciding on
issues like resource allocation, marriage, trade and crime supported
by the guurti (a council of elders, the highest political council).
 Afar
 Where they were/are living: Northeastern Ethiopia, northern
Djibouti and some of them have also inhabited southern part of
Eritrea.
 The Afar had an indigenous governance system known as Makabanto,
which has some elements of democracy.
 They were first mentioned by Ibn Said under the name "Danakil".
During the 13th century, they occupied the lowland territory near Bab
el-Mandeb. 28
 Following the collapse of Adal in the 16 century, the Afar established
th

their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad.

CONT…
 The Emirate of Harar
 Was the earliest Muslim center in Ethiopia and the Horn
and it was center of Islamic culture and power in the
region.
 Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing
Dakar until 1577 when it was shifted to Awsa due to the
pressure from the Oromo. It also became center for
Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al Ghazi.
 During the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a
walled city where the sultanate of the Harari developed.
 Its economic power grew as it controlled trade routes
from the Gulf of Aden, ports of Zeila and Berbera. Its
authority was established over the surrounding Oromo
and Somali through trade, inter-marriage, and expansion
of Islamic teachings.
 Ruled by Egyptian b/n 1875-1885.
29
 Its last emir was Amir Abdulahi and it was occupied by
force of central government of Ethiopia in 1887.
CONT…
[Link] and States in Central and South Central Parts
 The Kingdom of Shewa
 Its founder: a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703) and the kingdom eventually

controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Yifat.

 His successors were: Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-1718), Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-

1745) his capital was Haramba and he tried to subdue the surrounding Oromo
before he was killed by the Karrayu Oromo and he was unsuccessful to control the
Afar and Abitchu Oromo, Amaha Iyesus (r.1745-1775) declared authority over Bulga,
Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with his capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to Ankober,
Asfa-Wosen (r.1775-1808) and Negus Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-1847)-the grandfather
of Emperor Menilek II.
 The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie During Sahle-Sellasie,

several travelers visited Shewa and he even signed “treaty of friendship and
commerce” with the British in 1841.
 Economy: agriculture, trade and craft.

 Gurage

 Location: Southern Ethiopia

 The first are also known as Sebat Bet Gurage and include: Chaha, Muher, Ezha,

Gumer (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna and Gyeto). The latter are variously known as
Kistane, Aymallal or Soddo Gurage. Additional groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and
Masqan. The staple crop in Gurage land is enseStaple crop: enset
 Name of their traditional system of governance: Yajoka Qicha among Sebat Bet

Gurage and the Gordanna Sera among the Kistane.

Kambata : Four groups formed state of Kambata, c.1550-1570. These groups were the 30
Kambata of Mount Hambericho, and the Dubamo, Donga and Tembaro who trace their
homeland from Sidama highlands.
Kambata was annexed/controlled by Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30).Enset farming was
CONT…
 Name of their traditional administrative institution: Hambericho
Council
 Hadiya: Its origin goes back to the 13 th century and it was mentioned in
the Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings).
 It consisted of a number of Muslim population and Amde-Tsion controlled

Hadiya in 1332 after he defeated its ruler Amano.

 Its rulers rebelled against king Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) but attempted was

made by Zara-Yacob to stabilize the situation by marrying Queen Eleni from

Hadiya.
3. Peoples and States in the South

Sidama
 Location: Southern Ethiopia
 Economy: agriculture producing enset, and coffee(cash crop)
 Their indigenous system of governance was led by the Mote (king) and
had the council of elders called Songo.
 The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma. n. The
Woma could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a
man of peace.
 The Woma handled cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the
spirits. He also performed other rituals such as circumcision and marriage
 Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa which had 31
five grades (which are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa)
 The social constitution which governs the Sidama people social life was
CONT…

Gedeo
 Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the Gedeo people.
 The dominant tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso, who
was the older brother of Gujo (father of Guji Oromo).
 The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a traditional governance system
that worked with age classes and ranking.
 The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70-
year cycle.
 Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta
sharing one Abba Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be
replaced by a new holder with the next age set at baalle ceremony.
 Like the neighboring Sidama, with whom they shared a very close
language, their economy was based on the cultivation of enset.
Konso
 The name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in
Ethiopia and the Horn who spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their
land.
 The literal meaning of the term is a “heavily forested hill/ area.” A century
ago the highlands of Konso, which was covered by dense forest, had been
the traditional home of Konso people while the low-lying environment
along Sagan and Woyito river valley served as hunting grounds. 32
 Konso attracted the attention of local and international researchers
interested in human evolution.
 Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso.
CONT…

 Farmers combined crop production with cattle breeding.

 They also adopted soil conservation techniques notably the
construction of terraces, which proved helpful to convert
rugged and hilly areas into permanent cultivation.
 Farmers were also adept at selecting plant varieties that
withstood harsh climatic conditions.
 Such complex agricultural practices enabled farmers to
produce sufficient food on small plot of land for their
sustenance.
 Besides agriculture, Konso’s economy depended on bee
keeping and craftworks.
 Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso people lived in
walled villages (paletas) which were further divided into
wards called Kanta.
 Each village was ruled by a council of elders called hayyota
who were selected through direct participation of male
members of the village.
33
 At the core of the socio-political organization of the Konso
appear to be the clan or lineage group and generation set,
Tselta.
CONT….
4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part
 Wolayta in southwestern Ethiopia
 According to local traditions, before the emergence of Wolayta as a political unit,
the area was inhabited by different communities such as the Badia, Badiagadala
and Aruja
 Origin of the Wolayta kingdom was in the 13th century.
 At the top of the social and political hierarchy there was the Kawo (king),
assisted by a council of advisors.
 From the 13th to the late 19th centuries, two successive dynasties ruled
Wolayta: the Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre. Founded in the 13 th century by
Motalami, the Wolayta-Malla seems to have ruled until the end of the 15 th
century. It was then superseded by the Tigre dynasty. Wolayta’s dominant
food crop was enset.
 Kafa
 Its kingdom’s origin: 14th century. The ruling Minjo dynasty and the
medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close contact. The Oromo expansion
might have forced the ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb
which as a result brought Christianity and the royal title Tato to Kafa.
 Trade: Kafa had a prosperous commercial relation with the Oromo states of
the Gibe region. Major trade items such as musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory,
gold, honey-wax, and civet were exported. 34
 At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was the Tato with his
major political center at Bonga. The Tato was assisted by a council of seven
advisors called Mikrecho.
 CONT…

Yem: The Yem state was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe or to the
northeast of the Kafa kingdom.
 Yem’s economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts. Initially, an indigenous
dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in
Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain.
 Besides being at the top of the political ladder, the Amno (king) of Yem acted as a
chief priest with attributes of divinity. A state council of 12 members named
Astessor with its chairperson Waso assisted the Amno in administering the state.
 Erasho were the provincial governors and they were responsible for digging ditches
called bero. Jimma Abba Jifar tried to control Yem in 19 th century but controlled by
forces of Menilek II during that time .
Gamo : Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the
Gughe Mountain and beyond. The first mention of the Gamo in written records dates
back to the fifteenth century in the praise songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30)
 The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of Gamo highlands
while maize and sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands.
 Other crops grown in the highlands included barely, wheat, teff, peas, beans and
cabbage.
 Besides farming, most farmers kept cattle for food, farming and manure, which
they needed for successful agriculture. Craft making, pot making, tanning and
metalworking were other modes of the subsistence system.
35
Dawuro: Dawuro’s topography mostly is mountainous and plateau at the central, and
lowland and plain at Gojeb and Omo river basins.
 Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three major clans namely Malla,
 CONT…
 By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big state from a great
number of petty chieftainships on the territory between the Gojeb and Omo
rivers in the north, east and south and the Kafa high mountains in the west.
Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro, Kati Irashu and Kati Halala
were famous.
The Ari
 The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one branch of the
Omotic language family. The people were sedentary agriculturalist.
 The society was organized into ten independent clan based chiefdoms.
Hereditary clan chief known as Babi headed each of these chiefdoms.
 The clan chief was assisted by officially likeGodimis (religious leaders), Zis
(village heads) and Tsoikis (intelligence agents of Babi).
[Link] and States in the West
 Refer to the module for Anyua with their adm. system-Kuari &Nyiye, the Nuer-
of Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile regions of the Sudan, with age-set
system., Majang- neighbourhood of the Oromo-settling on the Baro plains, and
the Kunama-’Baza’-Eritrea-on the Gash and Tekkeze River with their customary
institution-sanga-anene.
 Berta and Gumuz : The Berta people inhabit the present day Beni-Shangul
Regional National State. The earliest record of Berta settlement in this region
36
dates back to the 16th century.
 Both Berta and Gumuz in terms of language classification belong to the Nilo-
Saharan linguistic group. Islamic influence had been strong on the Berta and
CONT…
5.6 The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
1. The Gondarine Period
 Beginning of this period : It started during the period of Emperor
Sartsa-Dengel (camped at Enfranz in 1571) with a shift of political center to
GondarEmperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar in such
places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
 Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established his political seat
there.
 Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive
emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–1667), Yohannes I (r.1667-1682) and Iyasu I
(r.1682- 1706).
 Among the major reforms during these periods were the restoration of
Orthodox Church as state religion.
 The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of the Oromo in
politics and the army.
 The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own
son, TekleHaymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues
and poisoning of reigning monarchs. Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before
the death of his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708.
 Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was also poisoned in 1717 and
replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and replaced by Bakafa in 1721.
 Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his followers and his wife Etege 37
Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728.
 The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of the Oromo in
Imperial politics and the army.
CONT…
 From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda
Le’ul (1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court politics. Walda Le’ul was
influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69).
 Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her
daughter-in-law from Wollo.
 But to counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court, Mentewab
sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute and
military powerful.
 Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation but refused to return to Tigray
although demanded by Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his
replacement by an old man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed
Yohannes II and put his son TaklaHaymanot II (1769-77) on power. This marked the
onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).
 Achievements of the Gondarine Period :
 Architecture like castles-of Fasiledes, bridges, residences, bath, library, towers,
fortifications and churches were constructed;
 Painting-religious paintings put on manuscripts and wood were plenty;
 Literature-e.g. manuscripts, Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian
Saints/ hagiographies and other were produced;
 Trade and urbanization-Gondar was a commercial center and connected trade
routes of the southern region with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan
border. Medium of exchange : gold and salt.
38
 Gondar was residential town for Indians, Greeks and Armenians.
 It had a population of about 60,000-70,000;
 It served as political and commercial, and religious centers-for Christians (residence
CONT…

2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)

 Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual position
of political power was in the hands of different regional
lords.
 The period lasted from the time Ras Michael Sehul
"assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu
was crowned as Tewodros II.
 During that period, Ras Mika’el was a king maker.
 He was the most influential and important person.
 Because of the harsh measures he took against the nobility
he was considered as unpopular among them.
 For this reason, lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo
cooperated and defeated him at the battle of Sarba-
Kussa in 1771.
 Under the reigns of his successors, there was relative
39
stability but several regional lords evolved
CONT…

 Zemene-Mesafint was a period of the rise of regional lords

which weakened the power of the central government.
 The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled
were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo,
Gojjam and Shewa. “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power
during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at Debretabor. Ali
Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the founder of
“Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
 Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-
1825) who made incessant struggle against Ras Walde-Silassie
of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
 In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-
Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of Dambiya was also killed at
the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.
 The period of Zemene mesafint was came to an end by Kasa
Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles that lasted from40
1840s to 1855.
CONT…
 Major features of Zemene-Mesafint
 It includes:
 Absence of effective central government
 The growing power and influence of the regional warlords
 The domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia
 Rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king maker
 Establishment of fragile coalition to advance political
interests
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door
Policy”
 Developments in literature, arts and architecture
41