SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS- Solar Thermal Electric Power Generation –

Solar Photovoltaic – Solar Cell fundamentals - characteristics,

classification, .construction. Solar PV Systems – stand-alone and grid
connected- Applications .
 Solar Thermal Electric Power Generation

• Photovoltaic (PV) system is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar

radiation into direct electricity with the help of semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic
effect.

• The photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive force as a result of

absorption of ionizing radiation.

• Energy Conversion devices which are used to convert sunlight in to electricity by the use of
photovoltaic effect are called solar cells.
 Solar Thermal Electric Power Generation
• Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert solar energy directly into electrical energy.

• Basic conversion device used is known as a solar photovoltaic cell or a solar cell.

• A solar cell is basically an electrical current source, driven by a flux of radiation.

• Solar cells were first produced in 1954 and were rapidly developed to provide power for space

satellites based on semiconductor electronics technology.

• Its terrestrial applications were considered seriously only after oil crisis of 1973 when a real need

of alternative energy sources was felt globally for the first time.

• Efficient power utilization depends not only on efficient generation in the cell, but also on the

dynamic load matching in the external circuit.

 Solar Thermal Electric Power Generation
• Solar cell is the most expensive component in a solar PV system (about 60 per cent of the total
system cost) though its cost is falling slowly.

• Commercial photocells may have efficiencies in the range of 10–20 per cent and can
approximately produce an electrical energy of about 1 kWh per sq. m per day in ordinary
sunshine.

• It produces a potential difference of about 0.5 V and a current density of about 200 A per sq.
m. of cell area in full solar radiation of 1 kW per sq. m.

• A typical commercial cell of 100 sq-cm area–thus produces a current of 2A.

• It has a life span in excess of about 20 years.

• As a PV system has no moving parts it gives almost maintenance free service for long
periods and can be used unattended at inaccessible locations..
 MAJOR USES OF PHOTOVOLTAICS
• Space satellites, remote radio communication booster stations and marine warning lights.

• Used for lighting, water pumping and medical refrigeration in remote areas especially in
developing countries.

• Solar powered vehicles and battery charging are some of the recent interesting application of
solar PV power.
Major advantages of solar PV systems over
conventional power systems are:
• It converts solar energy directly into electrical energy without going through thermal-
mechanical link. It has no moving parts.

• Solar PV systems are reliable, modular, durable and generally maintenance free.

• These systems are quiet, compatible with almost all environments, respond instantaneously to
solar radiation and have an expected life span of 20 years or more.

• It can be located at the place of use and hence no or minimum distribution network is
required, as it is universally available.
 Solar Thermal Electric Power Generation

• At present the costs of solar cells are high, making them economically uncompetitive with other
conventional power sources.

• The efficiency of solar cells is low. As solar radiation density is also low, large area of solar cell
modules are required to generate sufficient useful power.

• As solar energy is intermittent, some kind of electrical energy storage is required, to ensure
the availability of power in absence of sun. This makes the whole system more expensive.
 SOLAR CELL FUNDAMENTALS
• The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons.

• The band occupied by valence electrons is called valence band.

• The highest permitted band is called the conduction band, which is at higher energy level than
the valence band.

• The electrons in this band move freely.

• The energy gap in between the conduction band and the valence band is called forbidden
band as electrons cannot exist in this band.
 • No forbidden band exists between the valence band and the conduction band in a conductor.

• The electrons can move easily from valence band to conduction band.

• Forbidden band exists both in insulator and semiconductor.

• The forbidden band in insulator is more wide (more energy gap between valence and conduction
bands) compared to semiconductor.

• Insulator cannot conduct electricity owing to wide energy gap existing between valence and
conduction bands
Difference between a conductor, a semiconductor and an insulator.

Narrow gap in between bands

Overlapping of bands in conductors Wide gap in between bands in insulator.
in semiconductors
 Semiconductors
n-type semiconductors

• An n-type semiconductor is formed when arsenic impurity (valence 5) is introduced into a

pure germanium (valence 4).

• Arsenic atom forms four covalent bonds with neighbouring germanium atoms and the fifth
electron of arsenic atom remains free.

• Impure germanium atom has excess of electrons which act as charge carries. Such semiconductors
are called n type semiconductors

An n-type semiconductor
P-type semiconductors

• If aluminium (valency S) is introduced as impurity in pure germanium (valency 4), then only
three electrons are available in aluminium atom to form the covalent bond with germanium atoms.

• There is one electron short for forming fourth bond which appears empty space in the structure.

• Empty space is called hole.

• Hence, impure germanium has an excess of holes which act as charge carriers. Such
semiconductors are called p-type semiconductors.

A p-type semiconductor
pn junction

• An n-type semiconductor has free electrons as charge carriers while a p-type semiconductor
has free holes as charge carriers.

• When p-n junction is formed, electrons from the n-type semiconductor and holes from the p-type
semiconductor tend to diffuse to their opposite sides.

depletion layer in p-n junction

• Near p-n junction, holes from p-region and electrons from n-region diffuse to opposite sides

where they meet opposite carriers and get cancelled.

• A thin layer is formed at the junction which is free from all charge carriers. This layer is called

the depletion layer.

Depletion layer
Potential barrier at the p-n junction
• Electrons diffuse into p-region and holes diffuse into n-region.

• Such diffusion sets up a potential difference across the junction, thereby stopping further diffusion
of holes and electrons into n-region and p-region, respectively.

• This electric field opposing the movement of carriers is called the potential barrier.

• Hence, some electromotive force (e.m.f.) in way of battery (forward biased) is required to move
these charge carriers against the potential difference.
Photovoltaic Effect
• Photovoltaic effect is a process in which two dissimilar materials in close contact produce an electrical
charge when struck by light or any other radiant energy.

• When light strikes crystals such as silicon or germanium (p-n junction) in which electrons are usually not
free to move from n-region to p-region due to the potential barrier, the light provides the energy (e.m.f.)
needed to free some electrons from the bound condition depending on the absorption of solar energy .

• Free electrons cross the junction between two dissimilar crystals more easily in one direction than in
the other, giving one side of the junction a negative charge, and this results in a negative voltage with
respect to the other side, as in the case of a battery in which one electrode has negative voltage with respect
to the other.

• The photovoltaic effect can continue to provide voltage and current as long as light falls on the junction
of two materials.
 Solar power
• Solar power is the production of electricity directly from sunlight.

• The solar photovoltaic (PV) power is produced using photovoltaic effect so that when
sunlight strikes a solar voltaic cell, it releases electrons from the p-n junction of the cell and
pushes these electrons across a potential barrier or electric field at the junction.

• These electrons then travel through an external circuit to return to their usual state and in this
process create electric power.

Generation of emf across junction

to move the charge carriers.
• The photovoltaic effect is the basic physical process through which a PV or solar cell converts
sunlight into electricity.

• Sunlight is composed of energy packets called photons.

• These photons contain different amounts of energy that correspond to different wavelengths of
the solar spectrum.

• When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected, absorbed or can pass through the p-n
junction.

• The absorbed photons in the p-n junction generate electricity.

SOLAR CELL, MODULE, PANEL AND ARRAY

The solar cell consists of

(i) p-type silicon material layer

(ii) n-type silicon material layer,

(iii) front metallic grid

(iv) opaque back metal contact

• The bulk material consists of p-type silicon having thickness about l00–S50 µm.

• A thin layer of n-type silicon having thickness of about 2 µm is diffused on this bulk material,
providing p-n junction.

• A metallic grid at top with n-type material and an opaque back metal contact at the bottom of p-
type material are provided which also act as negative and positive terminals.
Solar PV Module
• A single solar cell cannot be used as such as it has (i) a very small output and (ii) no protection
against dust, moisture, mechanical impacts and atmospheric harsh conditions.
• Suitable voltage and adequate power can be obtained by suitably interconnecting a number of
solar cells.
• This assembly of solar cells is called solar module.
• Solar cells are provided with transparent cover and these are hermetically sealed for assembly into
solar module.
• A solar module has generally solar cells connected in series to charge a l2 V battery.
• All solar cells should match as closely as possible with each other so that peak power of the
module is the algebraic sum of the peak power of individual solar cells.
Solar PV Panel
• Solar PV panel consists of a number of solar PV modules connected in series and parallel to
obtain the power of desired voltage and current.

• When modules are connected in series, each module should produce maximum power at the
same current.

• When solar PV modules are connected in parallel, each module should produce maximum
power at the same voltage.

• A frame is used to mount several modules to form a solar PV panel.

A solar PV panel of four modules.

• Bypass diodes are installed across each module so that any defective module can be bypassed by
the output of remaining modules.

• The blocking diodes are connected in series with each series string of modules which enable the
output of the remaining series strings should not be absorbed by the failed string.

A typical panel with the series and the parallel connection

 Solar PV Array
• A PV array consists of a number of solar panels which are installed in an array field.

• The solar panels may be installed as stationary facing the sun or installed with some tracking
mechanism.

• The installation should ensure that no panel should cast shadow on any of the neighbouring
panels and those panels can be easily maintained.
Equivalent circuit of an ideal solar cell
Equivalent circuit of a practical solar cell
V-I characteristics of a PV cell
Voltage-Current Characteristic of p-n Junction(Solar Cell)

• The output power from solar cell is the product of voltage and current

(P= I x V)

• It is desirable to operate the solar cell to produce maximum power.

• Then power is product of voltage and current and power curve is hyperbola.
• In case we operate the p n junction at any other point on I V characteristic curve, power
produced will be lesser than the maximum power, resulting in certain amount of solar
radiation energy being wasted out as thermal power.

• The maximum power output can be determined when the value of the product of voltage
and current is maximum

• The product of voltage and current has the greatest value when the rectangle having sides
equal to these voltage and current, as well as inscribed within the characteristic curve, has
the largest area.

• The rectangle having the largest area with sides Vmp and Imp and depicting maximum solar
power output is shown in Figure.
Solar Cell Parameters
• The fill factor can be improved by the following ways

i. Increasing the photocurrent and decreasing the reverse saturation

current of a solar cell

ii. Minimising the internal series resistance

iii. Maximising the shunt resistance

• It is also known as solar efficiency
𝑉 𝑚𝑝 𝐼 𝑚𝑝
𝐹𝐹 =
𝑉 𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶

𝐹𝐹 ∗𝑉 𝑂𝐶 𝐼 𝑆𝐶
𝜇=
𝑃 𝑠𝑢𝑛
Classification of Solar Cells

Solar cells can be classified on the basis of:

(i) Cell size; (ii) Thickness of active material; (iii) Type of junction structure; (iv) Type of active
material.

1. Cell size. The size of the silicon solar cells can be divided into four groups;

(i) Round single crystalline having 100 mm diameter

(ii) Square single crystalline having area of 100 cm2

(iii) 1000 mm × 1000 mm square multicrystalline

(iv) 125 mm × 125 mm square multicrystalline.

• Larger size solar cells are used in terrestrial applications. Due to brittleness property of

the silicon, area of silicon solar cells is limited.

2. Thickness of active material.

Such solar cells are of two types:

(i) Bulk material cell

(ii) Thin film cell.

• Bulk material single crystal and multicrystalline cells are most successful for
terrestrial applications.

• Thin film cells are not commercially successful.

3. Type of junction structure.
These cells are classified as:
(i) p-n homojunction cell
(ii) p-n hetrojunction cell
(iii) p-n multijunction cell,
(iv) Metal semiconductor Schottky junction.
4. Type of active material.

Such cells are classified as:

(i) Single crystal silicon cell,

(ii) Multicrystalline silicon cell

(iii) Amorphous silicon cell

(iv) Gallium arsenide cell

(v) Copper indium diselenide cell

(vi) Cadmium telluride cell

(vii)Organic P-V cell.

Apart from this, solar cells are also divided into three main categories called
generations.

• The first generation include wafer based mono and multicrystalline solar cells. At
present, solar cells of first generating are dominating the market.

• The second generation solar cells include thin film cells such as amorphous silicon,
CIGS and Cadmium Telluride, etc.These solar cells are available commercially.

• The third generation solar cells operate on entirely different principle. They include
dye sensitized, organic and quantum dot solar cells, etc The third generation solar
cells are under development stage.
Central Power Station System

• This type of solar power station is similar to other conventional power stations which are
required to feed generated power into some national grid.

• This type of solar power stations are designed to meet high peak daytime load only and these
have large generation capacity in megawatt (up to 6 MW)

• Only few such power stations have been installed worldwide as the capital cost of these

plants is high.
Distributed Solar systems

1. Stand Alone System

• Solar PV power station is planned and located at the load centre. Its complete electricity
generation is meant to meet the electrical load of any remote area, village or installation

• Energy storage is essential to meet the requirement during non sunshine hours.
• The maximum power point tracker -senses the voltage and current outputs from the solar array and
then suitably adjusts the operating point to obtain maximum power output from the solar array as
possible from the climatic conditions.

• The solar electric output in direct current is converted into alternating current and it is fed into
the load.

• The excess power is preferably stored by charging the battery and otherwise excess is dumped in
the electric heaters.

• When the sun radiation is unavailable, the batteries supply the electricity through the converter.
2. Grid Interactive Solar PV System

• In grid interactive solar PV system, the system first meets the requirement of house, village or

installation and then all excess power is fed to an electric grid during sunshine hours.

• This arrangement helps in preventing any dumping of electricity as required in the stand alone

solar PV system.

• The second advantage of this system is that during absence of insufficient sunshine, the supply

of electricity is maintained from the electric grid, thereby eliminating any need of battery.
• Two way electric meters provided to record , the electricity generated and supplied by rooftop PV

system of various houses to the electric grid system during non peak sunshine hours and electricity

supplied to the houses from the electric grid during non sunshine hours .

• The difference of two is paid to consumers or vice versa.

3. Small Consumer Systems
• These systems are designed to meet the power requirement of low energy devices which are
generally used for indoor applications, such calculators, watches and electric devices.
Hybrid Solar PV systems
• The hybrid solar PV system is designed to provide electric power by some other means besides
solar electricity.
• It is difficult and uneconomical to provide all of the power from only solar PV system.
• It may be more economical to meet the power requirement by some other means, such as
windmills, fuel cells and diesel or petrol generators.
• The best hybrid solar PV system is the one in which no amount of solar PV generated power is
wasted.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
PV System
• Advantages

(i) It directly converts solar energy to electric power without any use of moving parts.

(ii) It is more reliable, durable and maintenance free.

(iii) It works without any noise.

(iv) It is non-polluting.

(v) It has long lifespan.

(vi) It can be located near the point of load and requires no distribution system.
• Disadvantages are as follows:

(i) It has high cost of installation.

(ii) It has low efficiency.

(iii) It requires a large area for installation to produce sufficient power.

(iv) Its output is intermittent, thereby requiring some means to store energy to use during non-

sunshine hours.