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RENEWABLE ENERGY DIVISION

The REIL entered into the Solar Photovoltaic industry in 1985. It started its operation
by setting up a manufacturing facility for SPV modules and has expanded its area of
operations through manufacture of Balance of Systems for a large number of
applications, utilizing its electronics product manufacturing facility. The Company
products are a result of its own in-house development efforts. The Company has a
capacity of 2 MW per year on single shift basis.

Solar Photovoltaic based application products, sub-systems and integrated

systems most of which were developed in-house, in the SPV segment, the Company
manufactures SPV modules and application systems including Domestic Lighting
System, Street Lighting System, Chargeable Power Packs for the rural, telecom,
Railway and Defence sectors.

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE

The word Photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek word for light and the name of
the physicist Allesandro Volta. It identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into
energy by means of solar cells. The conversion process is based on the photoelectric
effect. The photoelectric effect describes the release of positive and negative charge
carriers in a solid state when light strikes its surface.

In renewable energy division, REIL offers a wide range of state of the art of Solar
Photovoltaic module suitable for a variety of applications. These modules are ideal
power generation at remote areas, where conventional power is not available or power
supply is erratic. It is noiseless, non-polluting and maintenance free source of energy.
Photovoltaic are solid-state semiconductor devices that convert light directly into
electricity. They are usually made up of silicon with traces of other elements and are
similar to transistors, light emitting diodes (LEDs), and other electronic devices. The
photovoltaic device (usually called a solar cell) consists of layers of semiconductor
materials with different electronic properties. Most of the material is silicon. A thin
layer on the front of the cell is treated with phosphorous to give it a negative
character. The interface between two layers contains an electric field called junction.
Light consists of particles called photons. As shown in fig 1: we can easily understand
when light hits the solar cell, some of the photons are absorbed in the region of the
junction, freeing electrons in the silicon. If the photons have enough energy, the

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electrons will be able to overcome the electric field at the junction and are free to
move through the silicon and into an external circuit. Some of the more commonly
available units generate 5W to 10W per square foot of collector surface. The direct
current (DC) from the solar panel is converted to alternating current (AC) through an
inverter.

SILICON

Silicon is important part of solar cell. Solar cell is made up of silicon. It has
some special chemical properties, especially in its crystalline form. An atom of silicon
has 14 electrons, arranged in three different shells. The first two shells, those closest
to the center, are completely filled. The outer shell is only half filled, having only four
electrons. A silicon atom will always look for ways to fill up its last shell (which
would like to have eight electrons). To do this it will share electrons with four of its
neighbouring atoms. It’s like every atom holds hands with its neighbours, except that
in this case, each atoms has four hands joined to four neighbours. Pure silicon is poor
conductor of electricity because none of its electrons are free to move about, as
electrons are good conductors such as copper. Instead, the electrons are all locked in
the crystalline structure. The silicon in a solar cell is modified slightly so that it will
work as a solar cell.

SILICON IN SOLAR CELLS

A solar cell has silicon with impurity atoms mixed in with the silicon atoms.
We usually dope thin layer of impurities. Consider silicon with an atom of
phosphorous here and there, it may be one for every million silicon atoms.
Phosphorous has five electrons in its outer shell, not four. It still can bond with its
silicon neighbour atoms, but in a sense, the phosphorous has one electron that doesn’t
have anyone to hold hands with. It doesn’t form part of bond, but there is a positive
proton in the phosphorous nucleus holding it in place.

When energy is added to pure silicon, as in the form of heat, it can cause a few
electrons to break their bonds and leave their atoms. A hole is left behind in each case.
These electrons then wander randomly around the crystalline lattice looking for
another hole to fall into. These electrons are called free carriers, and can carry
electrical current. There are so few of them in pure silicon, however, that they aren’t
very useful. It turns out that it takes lots of less energy to knock out loose one of our

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“extra” phosphorous electrons because they aren’t tied up in a bond—their neighbours

aren’t holding them back. As a result, most of these electrons break out, and we have
a lot more free carriers than we would have in pure silicon. The process of adding
impurities on purpose is called doping and when doped with phosphorous, the
resulting silicon is called N- type because of the presence of free electrons. N-type
doped silicon is a much better conductor than pure silicon. That is only one part of
solar cell is N-type and the other part is doped with Boron; which has only three
electrons in its outer shell instead of four, to become P-type silicon. Instead of having
free electrons, P-type silicon has free holes. Holes really are just the absence of
electrons, so they carry the opposite (positive) charge, they move around just like
electrons do.

N-TYPE PLUS P-TYPE SILICON

In photovoltaic module both N-type silicon and P- type silicon are used.
Photovoltaic cell always has at least one electric field. Without an electric field, the
cell wouldn’t work and this electric field is formed when the N- type and P-type
silicon are in contact. The mechanism of producing electric field is explained by fig 1,
the free electrons in the N side makes all holes to fall into the free holes on P side and
rush to fill it. Silicon was electrically neutral. The extra electrons were balanced out
by the extra protons in the phosphorous and the missing electrons (holes) were
balanced out by the missing protons in the Boron. When the end electrons mix at the
junction between N- type and P- type silicon, however, there the neutrality is
disrupted. At the junction electrons and protons are mixed and form a barrier, making
it harder enough for electrons on the N side to cross to the P side. Eventually,
equilibrium is reached, and we have an electric field separating the two sides.

A
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
N type Si

_____ ____________________________

B 3
 4

P type
Si

Fig 1: Effect of electric field in a Photovoltaic cell

Physics of Photovoltaic Generation

n-type
semiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + De pletion Zone
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
p-type
semiconductor

Fig 2: Mechanism of photovoltaic generation

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TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

PV systems are categorized into three types : autonomous, hybrid and grid-connected.

(a) Autonomous system: - Autonomous systems are completely independent of

other power sources. Autonomous PV system are shown in fig 3, these type of
systems are generally used to provide power remote homes, cottages or lodges as well
as in applications such as remote monitoring and water pumping. In most cases, an
autonomous system will require batteries for storage. Such systems are particularly
useful and cost- effective for summer applications, when access to a site is difficult
costly , or when maintenance needs to be minimized.

Fig 3: Autonomous PV system with batteries Fig 4: PV hybrid system

(b) Hybrid system: - Hybrid systems receive a portion of their power from one or
more additional sources. In practice, PV modules are often paired with a wind
generator or a fuel-fired generator. Such systems usually require batteries for storage.

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They are most appropriate when energy demand is high (in the winter or year-round),
when power must be available on demand, or if your budget is limited.

(c) Grid-connected system: - Grid-connected systems allow you to reduce your

consumption from the electricity grid and, in some instances, to feed the surplus
energy back into the grid. In some cases, your utility may give you credit for the
energy returned to the grid. Since power is normally stored in the grid itself, batteries
are not necessary unless you want some form of autonomous power. These systems
are used in buildings, homes or cottages already hooked up to electrical grid.

Fig 6: Grid connected PV system

SOLAR PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL

Solar cells, also called photovoltaic’s (PV) by solar cell scientists, convert sunlight
directly into electricity. Solar cells are often used in power calculators and watches.
They are made up of semiconducting materials similar to those used in computer
chips. When sunlight is absorbed by these materials, the solar energy knocks out loose
electrons from their atoms, allowing the electrons to flow through the material to
produce electricity. This process of converting light (photons) to electricity (voltage)
is called the photovoltaic (PV) effect.

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Fig 7: Solar Cell

REIL is using the conventional resources of energy since many years. But now, they
are scarce and may not be available in forgoing decades. Hence company has to
switch over to other sources of energy. One of these is Solar Energy, which is
unlimited. Hence this alternative is the need of future. To utilize this resource of
energy, REIL uses solar cells, which convert Solar Energy into Electrical Energy. A
solar cell generates approximately 0.5 volts. Higher voltage and current are obtained
by connecting these cells in series or in parallel; according to the requirement. This
energy is stored in batteries and can be used during night hours.

TYPES OF CELLS, DEPENDING UPON THE CRYSTAL

STRUCTURE OF SILICON

Solar cells can be categorized into five classes, depending upon their crystal
structure. These are as follows.
(a) Crystalline Silicon Cell: -

It has high mechanical strength and these are less degraded with time. This is
made using crystallization of Si around one Si crystal; hence it is called as Single
Crystalline Si Cell. It is best suited for general purpose applications.

FZ (Float zone) - efficiency is 23%

CZ (commercial) - efficiency is 13%

(b) Multi-Crystalline Silicon Cell:-It is made by crystallization of Si around many

crystals of silicon. It has less mechanical strength than single Crystalline Silicon
material and its efficiency is 12 %.

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(c) Amorphous Silicon Cell :-

This cell doesn’t have any Si crystal. Simply a layer of p-type Si powder and N-
type Si powder is spread over it. Its mechanical strength is very low & efficiency is
20%.

(d) Thin Film Silicon Cell :-

It is made by very thin film of Si p-type and n-type materials and is used for
special purpose, efficiency is 25%.
(e) High Efficiency Silicon Cell :-
The purification of Si in this type of cell is very high. Hence, its efficiency is
high. It is used for laboratory devices having efficiency up to 30%. Eg - cadmium
telluride efficiency is 28%.

TYPES OF DIFFERENT MODULES USED

There are different types of solar module which I saw in REIL during my summer
Vocational training period. A group of cells connected in series or in parallel and then
properly laminated over a glass after curing is known as module. These modules are
then fitted onto the areas receiving sunlight. More often these are placed so that upper
part of the module is in the South Direction. Solar modules of different wattage are
made as per orders and requirements. They are all designed to charge a 12-V battery.
The approximate O/P voltage of a module is 16V-18V. Modules are made of
following powers.
(a) 38 WATT Module :-
For making this module, 36 cut cells are used. They are connected in series. The
O/P voltage is approximately 0.45V to 0.5V and the O/P current is approx. 2.2A. To
get the required power 36 cut cells are connected in series. These 36 cell series is

called a string. The O/P of this string, when illuminated by the sunlight is found to be
approx. 38 watts. It has 4 rows, each containing 9 cells.
(b) 75 WATT Module :-
Here also, a total of 36 cells are connected in series, which is called string. But
the cells used are pseudo-square having O/P voltage 0.45V-0.5V & O/P current 4.5A.
The O/P power of the string is found to be approx. 75 watts. It also has 4 rows, each
containing 9 cells.

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(c) 150 WATT Module:-

These are also designed by pseudo-square cells. A total number of 72 cells are
connected in series. The module has 6 rows and each row contains 12 cells. Thus, a
total of 12*6=72 cells are used. The O/P voltage, current and power of each cell is
same as that of 75-watt module. The total power obtained is approx. 150 watts.

CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OPERATION OF SOLAR

CELL
Solar cell is a simple p-n junction. It is made up of silicon, since in Si, the
minority carrier concentration is low, hence they do not disturb the flow of electrons
and holes, generated by the solar energy. Less charge carriers get recombined due to
low minority carrier concentration and we get higher value of current and power. For
making p-n junction it is doped with gaseous Boron (p-type) from one side and solid
phosphorous (n-type) from other side. The doping concentration is taken same for
both the impurities. Due to difference in doping states, different impurities (i.e.
gaseous and solid), are shifted to one side and p-n junction is formed. This junction is
shifted towards the n-side. Hence, the light is always made to incident at the n-side, so
that the photons can reach the junction. When the high-energy photons reach the
depletion region, they impart sufficient energy to electron to break its covalent bond.
This electron comes in conduction band and begins to behave as free electron. At the
same instant, a hole is also generated due to broken covalent bond.
Hence, we can say that two charge carriers are generated by one high-energy
photon. These carriers move to opposite direction due to potential barrier at the
junction and constitute a current. One important condition of generation of mobile
charge carrier is that the incident photon must have higher energy than the band gap
of the semiconductor. The induced current is directly proportional to the surface area
of the cell, at which the light is incident. A bare solar cell has some conducting lines
made up of Silver oxide for collection of charge carriers from all the portions of the
surface. These carriers are supplied to the bus bar. This is the place, from where the
external terminals are connected by using copper strips. These cells are made up in
different shapes and sizes, like circular, square, pseudo-square, cut shaped etc. In
these cells, pseudo-square is optimized size between circular and square to utilize

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most of the surface area & for least wastage in the process of shaping. The maximum
conversion efficiency for laboratory devices is up to 20%, but for commercial cells, it
lies between 10 % and 15 %.

PROCESS FOR PRODUCTION OF SOLAR PHOTO VOLTAIC

MODULE

During training, technical supporter of REIL made us familiar with the

manufacturing of solar module. The manufacturing process for Solar cell module is
not much typical but requires a careful handling since the sub-assemblies are costlier.
A bare cell is expensive and hence requires a careful handling. The manufacturing
process of a solar power module contains the following steps.
(a). Surface Texturing: - Forming pyramid like structure on Si wafer helps in
decreasing the top surface reflection of solar radiation from the cell surface.
(b). P-n junction formation: - To a p type base of Si wafer, an n type usually
phosphorus can be diffused on it.
(c). Back p+ junction formation: - This is done by depositing an Aluminum layer
and alloying it to the wafer at about 8000C.
(d). Front and back metal contacts: - They are formed by screen-printing
techniques. The typical width of finger lies between 150 to 300 micrometers.
(e). Antireflection Layer deposition: - It can be deposited before or after the
formation of metal contacts. Usually any dielectric material having refractive index
between Silicon & glass is used with an optimum thickness of 70nm. Materials used
are Titanium Oxide, Tantalum oxide, Silicon Nitride and Aluminum oxide.

(f). Tabbing: - This is the process of making terminals of a bare cell by soldering
copper strips to the bus bar.

(g). Row making: - A row of nine cells is made by connecting positive surface of
one cell to the negative surface of another cell.

(h). Stringing: - Four rows are connected in series to give a total of 36 cells in series
connection. This assembly is called a string and the process is called Stringing.

(i). String checking :- This String is checked visually for any kind of faults, which
are as follows-

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(i) Reverse String

(ii) Dry Point

(iii) Dry Soldering

(iv) Loose Connection

(v) Chip(Micro Broken)

(j). Lay-up:- Lay-up is a process of placing laminating material to the either side of
the string. The laminating materials are as listed

(i) Top Glass (Toughened Glass)

(ii) E.V.A. (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate) sheet

(iii) Polyester Taddler

(k). Lamination: - The above laminating materials are attached to the string on both
sides by the process of lamination. This process takes place at 110 oC in laminating
press. The module after Lay-up is placed in the press for 11 minutes, which is
equivalent to one cycle of the press. For first five minutes, soaking takes place. This is
the process to generate true vacuum in the modul. After these five minutes, heating
takes place for three minutes and for last three minutes, the heated module is pressed
to attain a one-piece assembly.
(l). Curing: - This process comes after the lamination to attain the full strength of
laminating materials. For this, the module is placed into 120oC temperature for 20
minutes.
(m). Trimming: - The resultant module from curing process has some extra
laminating materials. These materials are then cut and the final module is then
obtained.
(n). Electrical inspection: - This inspection is done to check the output performance
of the module.
(o). Channeling: - Now to provide structural support to the module, channels are
fixed around it. These channels prevent any damage to the module. A terminal box is
also fitted for external connections and for mounting safety diodes and then the final
product is cleaned and sent to the finished goods store.

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FUNCTION OF SAFETY DIODES

The output voltage of the solar module in the day is approximately 16V-18V
and it is used to charge a 12V battery. But in the night hours, the output voltage of a
solar module will be lower than that of battery. Hence a reverse current will flow in
this condition from battery to the solar module. Thus to prevent it, we use safety
diodes which allows the flow of current in one direction only.

Features of SPV cells

(a) High efficiency monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells connected in series.

(b) Solar cells laminated between UV resistant polymer (EVA) and high transmitivity
toughened glass surface.

(c) Rugged weather proof nylon terminal box for output connections.

(d) Anodized aluminium frame provides structural support for mounting and shock
resistance.

(e) Manufactured to stringent quality standards and tested to withstand adverse

environmental conditions.

Commissioning of Work

As shown in fig 9 the procedure for making SPV modules with the help of
flow chart, the first step is separation of copper strips used for tabbing, which are
dipped in flux. These strips are tinned and are tabbed on solar cells for connecting
them in series. After tabbing the process of row formation takes place, basically
connecting p side of one to n type of next and so on like this. Then these rows are
taken and according to power requirement we connect the end cells of these in series
and get two terminals making them to act as single source. Next, we do the quality
analysis of these strings to check if some cells are left dry, unsoldered or have crack
or even for some wrong connections. After going through the QA portion the lay-up is
done. For this sheet of crane glass, Taddler and EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate) are cut
and than a low iron tempered glass is taken and on it different string are placed. Next,
the lamination of this lay-up is done for 8 minutes and then for 20 minutes curing of
this module is done. After curing the module is analyzed in Sun Simulator for Quality

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Assurance. During QA we get the VI characteristics for the module, which can also be
provided to the customer. Lastly the channeling of module is done and terminals for
connection are taken out.

SPV MODULE

Photovoltaic (or PV) is the field of technology and research related to the
application of solar cells for energy by converting solar energy (sunlight, including
ultra violet radiation) directly into electricity. Due to the growing demand for clean
sources of energy, the manufacture of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has expanded
dramatically in recent years. Photovoltaic cell directly converts light into electricity at
the atomic level. Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect
that causes them to absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free
electrons are captured, an electric current is produced that can be used as electricity.

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series circuits to produce higher

voltages, currents and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits
sealed in an environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental building
blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules assembled
as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete power-
generating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and panels.

Fig 8: Process of production solar module.

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PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR “SPV” PRODUCTION

PRODUCTION PROCESS INSPECTION STAGE

Fig 9: Process flow chart for SPV production

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