Resistance

Dr .Ziyad Tarawneh
 Introduction
 The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area is
determined by the following factors:
 Material
 Length
 Cross-sectional Area
 Temperature
Find the resistance of the following materials:
• A copper wire 1 m long and 1.7 10 8 m resistivity with a circular cross sectional area of a
diameter 2 mm
• A constantan (copper-nickel alloy) wire 2.5 m long and 49 10 8 m resistivity with a circular
cross sectional area of a diameter 1 mm.
Solution
d
2

Aa  r 2    
d 2

2 10 
3 2

3.14 10 6 m 2
1  2 4 4
l l 1 m
Ra   1.7 10 8 m  6 2
5.4 10 3 
A A 3.14 10 m

2
d
2

Ab  r 2    
d 2

110 
3 2

7.85 10 7 m 2
 2 4 4
l l 2.5 m
Rb   49 10 8 m  1.56 
A A 7.85 10 7 m 2
 Temperature Effects
Temperature has a significant effect on the resistance of conductors,
semiconductors and insulators.
 For good conductors, an increase in temperature will result in an increase in the resistance
level. Consequently, conductors have positive temperature coefficients.
 For semiconductor materials, an increase in temperature will result in a decrease in the
resistance level. Consequently, semiconductors have negative temperature coefficients.
 As with semiconductors, an increase in temperature will result in a decrease in the resistance
of an insulator. The result is a negative temperature coefficient.
 Temperature Effects
Inferred absolute temperature
Resistance increases almost linearly with an increase in temperature to
the inferred absolute temperature of ̶ 234.5 C
 Temperature Effects
 Temperature coefficient of resistance

 The higher the temperature coefficient of resistance for a material, the more
sensitive the resistance level to changes in temperature.
 When we use the temperature coefficient equation we see that copper is more
sensitive to temperature variations than is silver, gold, or aluminum.
 Superconductors
 Superconductors are conductors of electric charge that, for all practical
purposes, have zero resistance.
 The relatively low speed of electrons through conventional conductors is due
to collisions with atoms and repulsive forces from other electrons.
 Superconductors
 The goal of superconductivity at room temperature
 Before 1986:
 Superconductivity could only be established at temperatures colder than 23 K
 After 1986:
 Physicists Alex Muller and George Bednorz of the IBM Zurich Research Center found a
ceramic material, lanthanum barium copper oxide that exhibited superconductivity at 30
K.
 Professors Paul Chu and Man Kven Wu raised the temperature to 95 K using a
superconductor of yttrium barium copper oxide, enabling liquid nitrogen (boiling point
77 K) to be used for cooling.
 Types of Resistors

 Resistors are made in many forms but all belong in either of two
groups:
 Fixed resistors – are made of metal films, high-resistance wire or carbon
composition
 Variable resistors – have a terminal resistance that can be varied by turning
a dial, knob, screw, or anything else appropriate for the application
Fixed resistors

Film resistors

Fixed composition resistors Fixed metal-oxide resistors of

different wattage ratings

wattage ratings
 Variable resistors
 Variable resistors can have two or three terminals. Most
have three.
Variable resistors are classified as a rheostat or a
potentiometer, depending upon the application.
 Rheostat: Two- or three-terminal device used as a variable resistor
 Potentiometer: Three-terminal device used for controlling potential
levels
 Variable resistors
 The resistance between the
outside terminals a and c is
always fixed at the full rated
value of the potentiometer,
regardless of the position of the
wiper arm (b).
 The resistance between the wiper
arm and either outside terminal
can be varied from a minimum of
0 ohm to a maximum value equal
to the full rated value of the
potentiometer.
 The sum of the resistances
between the wiper arm and each
outside terminal will equal the
full rated resistance of the
potentiometer.
 Ohmmeters
 An Ohmmeter is used to perform the following tasks:
 Measure the resistance of individual or combined elements
 Detect open-circuit (high-resistance) and short-circuit (low-resistance)
situations
 Check continuity of network connections and identify wires of a multilead
cable
 Test some semiconductor (electronic) devices
Resistance is measured by simply connecting the two leads
of the meter across the resistor. It doesn’t matter which
lead goes on which end.
 Ohmmeters
 When measuring the resistance of a single resistor in a
network, it is usually best to remove the resistor from the
network before making the measurement.
 Important notes about the use of any ohmmeter:
Never hook up an ohmmeter to a live circuit.
Never store a VOM or a DMM in the resistance mode.
 Color Coding and Standard Resistor Values

 Color coding was developed to identify resistors that were too small
for their resistance value to be printed on them.
 Color bands are always read from the end that has the bands closest to it.
 1st and 2nd band represent the first two digits
 3rd band determines the power-of-ten multiplier (the number of zeros
following the second digit)
 4th band is the manufacturer’s tolerance (precision of the resistor)

Find the value of the resistor i

Color coding.
The range can be extended to include resistors from 0.1 to 10 by simply using gold as a multiplier
color (third band) to represent 0.1 and using silver to represent 0.01.

Example

Five-band color coding for fixed resistors

For four, five, or six bands, if the tolerance is less than 5%,
the following colors are used to reflect the % tolerances:
brown 1%, red 2%, green 0.5%, blue 0.25%, and
violet 0.1%.
 Surface Mount Resistors

The three-symbol approach uses three digits. The

first two define the
first two digits of the value; the last digit, the
power of the power-of-ten
multiplier.

The two-symbol marking uses a letter followed by a number.

The second symbol is the power of the power-of-ten multiplier.

For example:
Standard Values of Resistors
 Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is conductance (G), measured in siemens (S)

G = 1/R (siemens, S)

A resistance of 1 MΩ is equivalent to a conductance of 10-6 S and a resistance of

10 Ωis equivalent to a conductance of 10-1 S.
 Thermistors
 A thermistor is a two-terminal semiconductor device whose resistance is
temperature sensitive.
 Increase in current through the device will raise its temperature, causing a
drop in its terminal resistance
 Materials employed in the manufacture of thermistors include oxides of
cobalt, nickel, strontium and manganese.
 Photoconductive Cell

 A photoconductive cell is a two-terminal semiconductor whose

terminal resistance is determined by the intensity of the incident light
on its exposed surface.
 As illumination increases in intensity, the energy state of the surface
electrons and atoms increases resulting in an increase in the number of
“free carriers”, and a corresponding drop in resistance.
 Varistors
 Varistors are voltage-dependent, nonlinear resistors used to suppress
high-voltage transients.
 Varistors can be used to limit the voltage that can appear across the
terminals of a sensitive device or system.

Varistors available
with maximum dc
voltage ratings
between 18 V and
615 V.
 Applications
 Electric baseboard heating element
 Heat is generated by passing current through a resistive element.
 Dimmer controls in an automobile
 A two-point rheostat can be used to control light intensity on the dashboard
and accessories of an automobile.
 Strain gauges
 Change in the shape of a structure can be detected using strain gauges
whose resistance will change with applied stress or flex.
 Ohm’s Law, Power and Energy

Dr .Ziyad Tarawneh
 The Basic Electric Circuit

Simple Electric Circuit Schematic for the Circuit

A simple electric circuit consists of the following:

1. Node, which is the point where two or more components are connected together.
2. Branch, which is any element connected between two nodes.
3. Loop, which is any closed path in an electrical circuit.
I1 I2
Node
I3
Loop Branch
 Ohm’s Law
 For a fixed resistance, the greater the voltage (or pressure) across a
resistor, the more the current.
 The more the resistance for the same voltage, the less the current.
 Current is proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to

the resistance.

V IR
a)What is the resistance of a lamp if a 6 V battery results in a 100 mA current flow in it?
b)What is the voltage drop across a 560  resistance when the current flow in it is 20 mA?
c)If the voltage across a 2 k resistor is 8 V, what is the current flowing in the resistor?

Solution

(a)
V 6 V 8
R  60  (c) I   4 mA
I 100 10 3 R 2 10 3

(b) V IR 20 10 3 560 11.2 V

 Ohm’s Law
E
I
R
 Power
 Power is an indication of how much work (the conversion of energy from one form to
another) can be done in a specific amount of time; that is, a rate of doing work.

W
P 1 Watt (W) 1 joule / second
t
 Power can be delivered or absorbed as defined by the polarity of the voltage and
the direction of the current.
 An amount of energy equal to 100 J is used in 5 s. What is the power in watts?

Solution
W 100 J
P  20 Watts
t 5s

(a) What is the power dissipated by the resistance of a lamp if a 6 V battery results in a 100 mA current
flow in it?
(b) What is the power dissipated by a 560  resistance when the current flow in it is 20 mA?
(c) Calculate the power dissipated by a 2 k resistor If the voltage across it is 8 V,.
Solution
(a) P IV 6 100 10 3 0.6 W
(b)
P I 2 R 20 10 3  560 0.224 W
2

V2 64
(c)
P  3
32 mW
R 2 10
 Calculate the power in each of the three circuits of the following figure

Solution
In circuit (a), you know V and I. Therefore, use Equation

P IV 2 10 20 W

In circuit (b), you know I and R. Therefore, use Equation

P I 2 R 2  47 188 W

2

In circuit (c), you know V and R. Therefore, use Equation

V2 25
P  2.5 W
R 10
 Energy
 Energy (W) lost or gained by any system is determined by:
W = Pt
 Since power is measured in watts (or joules per second)
and time in seconds, the unit of energy is the wattsecond
(Ws) or joule (J)
 Energy
 The watt-second is too small a quantity for most practical purposes,
so the watt-hour (Wh) and kilowatt-hour (kWh) are defined as
follows:
Energy (Wh) power (W) time (h)
power (W) time (h)
Energy (kWh) 
1000
 Thekillowatt-hour meter is an instrument used for measuring the
energy supplied to a residential or commercial user of electricity.
 Efficiency

 Efficiency (Ƞ) of a system is determined by the following equation:

Ƞ = Po / Pi

Where: Ƞ = efficiency (decimal number)

Po = power output
Pi = power input
 Efficiency
 Thebasic components of a generating (voltage) system are depicted
below, each component has an associated efficiency, resulting in a loss
of power through each stage.

Insert Fig 4.19

Example

Example
Typical wattage ratings of some common household items

Insert Table 4.1