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1 BASIC DESIGN COSIDERATIONS

 DESIGN PROCEDURE
 General Cosideration in Design
 Types of load
 Stress-Strain Diagram
 Types of Stresses
 Concept of Creep
 Fatigue
 S-N Curve
 Endurance Limit
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Course Outcome
C604.1: Analyze and evaluate the loads, forces, stresses
involved in components and decide the dimensions.
C604.2: Select design criteria for different machine
components.
C604.3: Select proper material for machine
components.
C604.4: Identify various modes of failure of machine
components under different load patterns.
C604.5: Use design data book and different IS codes
for design.
C604.6: Select standard components with their
specifications as per design.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
General Cosideration in Design
1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine.
3. Selection of materials.
4. Form and size of the parts.
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication.
6. Convenient and economical features.
7. Use of standard parts.
8. Safety of operation.
9. Workshop facilities.
10. Number of machines to be manufactured.
11. Cost of construction.
12. Assembling.
Types of load
1. Dead or steady load : A load is said to be a dead or
steady load, when it does not change in magnitude or
direction.
2. Live or variable load: A load is said to be a live or
variable load, when it changes continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads : A load is said to be a
suddenly applied or shock load, when it is suddenly
applied or removed.
4. Impact load : A load is said to be an impact load, when
it is applied with some initial velocity.
Stress-Strain Diagram
1. Proportional limit.
2. Elastic limit.
3. Yield point.
4. Ultimate stress.
5. Breaking stress.
6. Perntage reduction in area.

A = Original cross-sectional area.

a = Cross-sectional area at the neck
7. Percentage elongation.
Types of Stresses
Tensile Stress
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls
P (also called tensile load) as shown in Fig., then the stress
induced at any section of the body is known as tensile stress
as shown in Fig.
Tensile stress, σt =P/A
Tensile strain,εt = δl/ l
Compressive Stress

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite

axial pushes P (also called compressive load) as shown
in Fig, then the stress induced at any section of the
body is known as compressive stress as shown in Fig.
Compressive stress, σc = P/A
compressive strain, εc = δl /l
Shear Stress
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces
acting tangentially across the resisting section, as a result of
which the body tends to shear off the section, then the stress
induced is called shear stress

Single Shear
Double shear.
 The area resisting the shear off the rivet,
Crushing Stress
A localised compressive stress at the surface of
contact between two members of a machine part, that
are relatively at rest is known as crushing stress
Bearing Stress
A localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between
two members of a machine part, that has relative motion is
known as bearing stress
Torsional Shear Stress
 When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and opposite
couples acting in parallel planes (or torque or twisting moment), then the
machine member is said to be subjected to torsion. The stress set up by
torsion is known as torsional shear stress.
 Torsion equation:
Bending Stress
 In engineering practice, the machine parts of structural members may
be subjected to static or dynamic loads which cause bending stress in
the sections besides other types of stresses such as tensile,
compressive and shearing stresses.

 The bending equation is given by

Principal Stresses and Principal Planes
 Planes which have no shear stress are known as principal planes and
the direct stresses along these planes are known as principal
stresses. The planes on which the maximum shear stress act are
known as planes of maximum shear.
 When a member is subjected to bi-axial stress (i.e. direct stress in two
mutually perpendicular planes accompanied by a simple shear stress),
then the normal and shear stresses are obtained as discussed below:
When a member is subjected to direct stress in one
plane accompanied by a simple shear stress as shown
in Fig, then the principal stresses are obtained by
substituting σ2 = 0 in above equations.
 Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long
period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This
property is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and
turbines.
 Creep Strength: It is defined as the maximum strength that the material can
withstand for a specified length of time without excessive deformation.
 Creep Ruptuure strength of the material is the maximum strength that the
material can withstand for a specified length of time.

Creep Curve
Fatigue: When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it
fails at stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of
failure of a material is known as *fatigue. The failure is caused
by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually
fine and of microscopic size. This property is considered in
designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc
 ENDURANCE LIMIT
It may be defined as the safe maximum stress which can be
applied to the machine part working under actual condition.
It is defined as maximum value of completely reversed bending
stress which a polished specimen can withstand without failure
for infinite number of cycles.
FACTORS AFFECTING ENDURANCE STRENGTH
Load factor (KL)
Surface finish factor(KSF)
Size factor(KSZ)
Reliability factor(KR)
Miscellaneous factors(K) ns.
NOTCH SENSITIVITY (q)
This is defined as the degree to which the actual stress concentration effect
compares with theoretical stress concentration effect.
Factor of safety
It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to
the working stress Mathematically,

ductile materials e.g. mild steel, the fos is based upon the yield
point stress to the working stress.

brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the fos for brittle materials is
based on ultimate stress
Selection of Factor of Safety
Before selecting a proper factor of safety, a design
engineer should consider the following points :
1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these
properties during service ;
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these
results to actual machine parts ;
3. The reliability of applied load ;
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure ;
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions ;
6. The extent of localised stresses ;
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture ;
8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs ; and
9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs .
Stress Concentration
Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its
cross-section, the simple stress distribution no longer
holds good and the neighbourhood of the discontinuity is
different. This irregularity in the stress distribution caused
by abrupt changes of form is called stress concentration.
It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets,
notches, holes, keyways, splines, surface roughness or
scratches etc.
Causes
Abrupt Change of c/s
Poor surface finish
Localized loading
Variation in the material properties

Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration

•Avoiding sharp corners
•Providing fillets
•Use of multiple holes instead of single hole.
•Undercutting the shoulder part
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration
Theoretical or Form Stress Concentration Factor
The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is
defined as the ratio of the maximum stress in a
member (at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress at
the same section based upon net area. Mathematically,
theoretical or form stress concentration factor,

The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry of the

part.
Steels Designated on the Basis of Mechanical
Properties
These steels are carbon and low alloy steels where the
main criterion in the selection and inspectionof steel
is the tensile strength or yield stress. According to
Indian standard **IS: 1570 (Part–I)- 1978 (Reaffirmed
1993), these steels are designated by a symbol ‘Fe’ or
‘Fe E’ depending on whether
the steel has been specified on the basis of minimum
tensile strength or yield strength, followed by the
figure indicating the minimum tensile strength or
yield stress in N/mm2. For example ‘Fe 290’ means a
steel having minimum tensile strength of 290 N/mm2
and ‘Fe E 220’ means a steel having yield strength of
220 N/mm2.
Steels Designated on the Basis of Chemical Composition
 According to Indian standard, IS : 1570 (Part II/Sec I)-1979 (Reaffirmed 1991),
the carbon steels are designated in the following order :
(a) Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon content,
(b) Letter ‘C’, and
(c) Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese
content.
 The figure after multiplying shall be rounded off to the nearest integer.
 For example 20C8 means a carbon steel containing 0.15 to 0.25 per cent (0.2
per cent on an average) carbon and 0.60 to 0.90 per cent (0.75 per cent
rounded off to 0.8 per cent on an average) manganese.
Free Cutting Steels
 According to Indian standard, IS : 1570 (Part III)-1979 (Reaffirmed
1993), carbon and carbon manganese free cutting steels are designated
in the following order :
 1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon,
 2. Letter ‘C’,
 3. Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of
manganese, and
 4. Symbol ‘S’ followed by the figure indicating the 100 times the
average content of sulphur.
 If instead of sulphur, lead (Pb) is added to make the steel free cutting,
then symbol ‘Pb’ may be used
Indian Standard Designation of Low and Medium Alloy Steels

 According to Indian standard, IS : 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993),

low and medium
 alloy steels shall be designated in the following order :
 1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage carbon.
 2. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the
figure for its average
 percentage content multiplied by a factor as given below :
Indian Standard Designation of High Alloy Steels (Stainless Steel
and Heat Resisting Steel)
 According to Indian standard, IS : 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993),
the high alloy steels
 (i.e. stainless steel and heat resisting steel) are designated in the
following order:
 1. Letter ‘X’.
 2. Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon content.
 3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by a
figure for its average percentage content rounded off to the
nearest integer.
 4. Chemical symbol to indicate specially added element to allow
the desired properties.
 For example, X 10 Cr 18 Ni 9 means alloy steel with average carbon
0.10 per cent, chromium 18 per cent and nickel 9 per cent.
Indian Standard Designation of High Speed Tool Steel
 According to Indian standard, IS : 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993),
the high speed tool
 steels are designated in the following order :
 1. Letter ‘XT’.
 2. Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon content.
 3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the
figure for its average percentage content rounded off to the
nearest integer, and
 4. Chemical symbol to indicate specially added element to attain
the desired properties.
 For example, XT 75 W 18 Cr 4 V 1 means a tool steel with average
carbon content 0.75 percent, tungsten 18 per cent, chromium 4 per
cent and vanadium 1 per cent.
Theories of Failure Under Static Load

1. Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory

(also known as Rankine’s theory).
2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as
Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory
(also known as Saint Venant theory).
4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as
Haigh’s theory).
5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also
known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs

at a point in a member when the maximum principal
or normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the
limiting strength of the material in simple tension test.
Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield
point stress and for brittle materials(which do not have
well defined yield point) the limiting strength is
ultimate stress, therefore according to the above
theory, taking factor of safety (F.S.) into consideration,
the maximum principal or normal stress (σt1) in a bi-
axial stress system is given by
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a
member when the maximum
shear stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the shear
stress at yield point in a
simple tension test. Mathematically,
τmax = τyt /F.S. ...(i)
where τmax = Maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress system,
τyt = Shear stress at yield point as determined from simple tension test,
and F.S. = Factor of safety.
Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when
the distortion strain energy (also called shear strain energy) per unit volume in a bi-
axial stress system reaches the limiting distortion energy (i.e. distortion energy at
yield point) per unit volume as determined from a simple tension test.
Mathematically, the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is expressed as

(σt1)2 + (σt2)2 – 2σt1 × σt2 =

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