Design of Machine Element

Manish Kr. Gupta

Asst.Professor,CVRCE
Completed Topics:

Load
Types of load
Stress
Types of stresses*
Calculation of stress on different planes*
Different between stress and pressure
Definition of machine design
Classification of machine design
Design process/ procedure*
Load:
Load is defined as the set of external forces acting on a
mechanism or engineering structure which arise from service
conditions in which the components work
Common loads in engineering applications are tension and
compression
Tension:- Direct pull. Eg:Force present in lifting hoist
Compression:- Direct push. Eg:- Force acting on the pillar of a
building
Sign convention followed: Tensile forces are positive and
compressive negative.
Types of load:

There are a number of different ways in which load can be

applied to a member. Typical loading types are:
A) Dead/ Static load- Non fluctuating forces generally caused by
gravity
B) Live load- Load due to dynamic effect. Load exerted by a
lorry on a bridge
C) Impact load or shock load- Due to sudden blows
D) Fatigue or fluctuating or alternating loads: Magnitude and
sign of the forces changing with time
Types of Stresses:

Tensile Stress
Compressive stress
Shear Stress
Torsional Stress
Thermal Stress
Crushing Stress
Different criteria for design (or)
Factors influencing Machine design:
1. Device or mechanisms to be used
2. Materials
3. Forces acting on the elements
4. Size, shape and space requirements
5. Method of manufacturing the components and their assembly
6. Reliability and safety
7. Maintenance and cost
1. Device or mechanisms to be used: this is best judged by
understanding the problems thoroughly. Sometimes a particular
function can be achieved by a number of means or by using
different mechanisms and the designer has to decide which one is
most effective under the given circumstances.
2. Materials: it is very important aspect of any design. A wrong
choice of material may lead to failure. Four basic factors which are
to be considered in selecting the material are availability, cost,
mechanical properties and manufacturing considerations.
3. Forces acting on the elements: different types of forces acting on
different parts of machines. So in order to know the forces acting
on the different parts, the free body diagram needs to be
constructed.
4. Size, shape and space requirements
5. Method of manufacturing the components and their assembly: care must be
taken to ensure that the designed elements may be manufactured with ease, within
the available facilities and at low cost.
6. Reliability and safety: reliability is an important factor in any design. The
probability that an element or a machine will not fail in its use is called reliability.
Reliability lies between 0 to 1. Possible overloading, wear of elements, excessive
heat generation and other such detrimental effects must be avoided. And also
machine must be designed to serve mankind not to harm it.
7. Maintenance and cost: maintenance and safety are often interlinked. Good
maintenance ensures good running condition of machine. Often a regular
maintenance schedule is maintain and a through check up of moving and loaded
part is carried to avoid catastrophic failures.
Low friction and wear is maintained by proper lubrication.
High friction leads to increased loss of energy. Wear of m/c parts leads to loss of
materials and premature failure.
Design Consideration's:
Several design consideration should be taken into account for economical and efficient
design:
1. Recognize and analyze the design problems: design must perform well under
expected and worst case conditions.
2. Determination load conditions: Structures will be subjected to different types of
load like tension, compression, torsion and bending. These loads must be
calculated under service conditions.
3. Productivity: the most elegant design is useless if it cannot be made efficiently.
Designers must and should familiar with the working condition and challenges of
shop floor people.
4. Strength: A machine part should not fail under the forces that acts on it. It should
have sufficient strength to avoid failure either due to fracture or due to general
yielding.
5. Rigidity: a machine component must be rigid ,i.e. it should not deflect or bend too
much due to forces or moments that acts on it.

6. Wear resistance: wear is the main reason for putting the m/c part out of order. It
reduces useful life of component. Wear also leads to the loss of accuracy of m/c
tools.

7. Minimum dimension and weight: a m/c part should be sufficiently strong, rigid
and wear resistant and at the same time with minimum dimension and weight.

8. Manufacturability : manufacturability is the ease of fabrication and assembly.

The shape and material of machine part should be selected in such a way that it
can be produced with minimum labour cost.

9. Safety: the shape and dimensions of the m/c parts should ensures safety to the
operator of the machine.
10. Conformance to standards: a machine part should
conform to the national or international standard covering
its profile, dimension, grade and materials.
11. Maintainability: a m/c part should be maintainable.
Maintainability is the ease with which a m/c part can be
serviced or repaired.
12. Minimum life cycle cost: life cycle cost of the machine
part is the total cost to be paid by the purchaser for
purchasing the part and operating and maintaining it over
its life span.
Stress:
When a material is subjected to an external force, a resisting force is set up within
the component, this internal resistance force per unit area is called stress.
Stress is second order Tensor. (It require both plane as well as direction to
describe it position in which it is acting).
SI unit is N/m(Pa). 1kPa=1000Pa, 1MPa=10^6 Pa, 1 Gpa=10^9Pa, 1 Terra
Pascal=10^12 Pa

In engineering applications, we use the

the original cross section area of the specimen
and it is known as conventional stress or
Engineering stress.
Note: Mild steel , Glass , HCS, Rubber ..which is more elastic ?
Strain:
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of
dimension of the body. The ratio of change of dimension of the body to its
original dimension is known as strain
Strain is a dimensionless quantity
Strain may be:- a) Tensile strain b) Compressive strain c) Volumetric strain d)
Shear strain
Tensile strain- Ratio of increase in length to original length of the body when it
is subjected to a pull force
Compressive strain- Ratio of decrease in length to original length of the body
when it is subjected to a push force
Volumetric strain- Ratio of change of volume of the body to the original volume
Shear strain-Strain due to shear stress
TYPE OF STRESSES
TYPES OF DIRECT STRESS
Direct stress may be normal stress or shear stress
Normal stress () is the stress which acts in direction perpendicular to the area.
Normal stress is further classified into tensile stress
Tensile stress is the stress induced in a body, when it is subjected to two equal and
opposite pulls (tensile forces) as a result of which there is a tendency in increase in
length
It acts normal to the area and pulls on the area.
Shear stress :- Stress Induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite
forces which are acting tangentially across the resisting section as a result of which
the body tends to shear off across that section
Modulus of rigidity, G= /= Shear stress/ shear strain.
Modulus of elasticity, E=/e= Tensile Stress/Tensile strain.
Thermal stresses: are the stresses induced in a body due to change in temperature.
Thermal stresses are set up in a body, when the temperature of the body is raised or
lowered and the body is restricted from expanding or contracting
Questions for practice:

1. Calculate the force needed punch a sheet of metal 5mm thick and 0.8m wide.
Given that ultimate shear stress is 50Mpa.
2. Calculate the force required to shear a pin 8mm Diameter, given that
ultimate shear stress is 60Mpa.
ELASTICITY & ELASTIC LIMIT
The property of a body by virtue of which it undergoes
deformation when subjected to an external force and regains its
original configuration (size and shape) upon the removal of the
deforming external force is called elasticity.
The stress corresponding to the limiting value of external force
upto and within which the deformation disappears completely
upon the removal of external force is called elastic limit
A material is said to be elastic if it returns to its original,
unloaded dimensions when load is removed.
HOOKES LAW & ELASTIC MODULI
Hookes law states that: When a body is loaded within elastic limit, the
stress is proportional to strain developed or Within the elastic limit the
ratio of stress applied to strain developed is a constant
The constant is known as Modulus of elasticity or Elastic modulus or
Youngs modulus
Mathematically within elastic limit. Typically, E=210 x 10^9 N/m
(=210 GPa) for steel.
Stress/Strain=/e=E
= P/A; e =L/L
E=PL/A L
Note: As per Hookes law, Stress is proportional to strain upto
proportionality limit but within elastic limit that comes after
proportionality limit in stress-strain curve.
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE TEST)
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE (TENSILE TEST)
A Limit of proportionality; It is the point where the linear nature of the stress
strain graph ceases.
B Elastic limit; It is the limiting point for the condition that material behaves
elastically, but Hooke's law does not apply . For most practical purposes it can be
often assumed that limit of proportionality and elastic limits are the same
Beyond the elastic limits, there will be some permanent deformation or permanent
set when the load is removed
C (Upper Yield point), D (Lower yield point) Points after which strain increases
without correspondingly high increase in load or stress
E Ultimate or maximum tensile stress; Point where the necking starts
F Fracture point
Special Cases:
Yield strength or Yield stress is the material property defined as the stress at
which a material begins to deform plastically whereas yield point is the point
where nonlinear (elastic + plastic) deformation begins.
In some ductile materials such as Aluminum, Copper, the yield point cannot be
clearly defined during tension test, therefore yield stress is Unknown. For such
metals design stress called PROOF stress is calculated using offset method.
Generally, Proof stress is taken at 0.2% of strain.
Malleability
Ductility
ALLOWABLE LOAD / ALLOWABLE STRESS
Max load that a structural member/machine component will be allowed to carry
under normal conditions of utilization is considerably smaller than the ultimate
load
Proof Stress: It is that point where 0.2% plastic
deformation occurs while returning to its original shape.
Common Terms related to stress-strain
Curve:
1. Resilience
2. Proof resilience
3. Toughness
4. Modulas of Toughness
Resilience:(Strain Energy)
Ability of a material to absorb energy in the elastic region when it is strained
Or
It is the ability of a material to regain its original shape on removal of applied
load is called Resilience.
Modulus of resilience
When stress reaches proportional limit, strain-energy-energy density is called
modulus of resilience
A materials resilience represents its ability to absorb energy without any
permanent damage.

pl pl pl2
ur = =
2 2E
Modulus of toughness
Modulus of toughness ut, indicates the strain-energy density of material
before it fractures.
Shaded area under stress-strain diagram is the modulus of toughness.
Factor of safety
It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.

Mathematically, Factor of safety = Maximum stress/ Working or design stress

In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor of safety is
based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,

Factor of safety = Yield point stress/ Working or design stress

In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile materials.
Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.

Factor of safety = Ultimate stress/ Working or design stress

This relation may also be used for ductile materials.

The above relations for factor of safety are for static loading.

Importance/ Significance: The structure should be able to withstand the variations in unexpected
loading up to some extent. Factor of safety covers uncertainties in forces or loads.
Factor Of Safety: (FOS)
Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of material strength and allowable stress.
Material strength includes ultimate strength, or yield strength or endurance
strength.

For brittle materials having static load, factor of safety is the ratio of ultimate
stress and design stress.

For ductile materials having static load, factor of safety is the ratio of yield
strength and design stress.

For fatigue load, factor of safety is the ratio of endurance limit and design stress.

Factor of safety= Ultimate stress/Permissible stress (allowable stress)

Classification of Engineering Materials
The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance for a design
engineer.
The engineering materials are mainly classified as:
1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminum, etc.
2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.
The metals may be further classified as:
(a) Ferrous metals and (b) Non-ferrous metals.
The ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such
as cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their
main constituent, such as copper, aluminum, brass, tin, zinc, etc.
Selection of Materials
The following factors should be considered while selecting the material:
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
3. The cost of the materials.
The important properties, which determine the utility of the material, are
physical, chemical and mechanical properties.
The physical properties of the metals include, color, size and shape, density,
electric and thermal conductivity, and melting point.
These mechanical properties of the metal include strength, stiffness, elasticity,
plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience, creep and
hardness.
Steel
It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content up to a maximum of 2.1%. But
for general application purpose, maximum of 1.5% is allowed.
Other elements e.g. silicon, Sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are also present In
lesser amount to impart certain desired properties to it.
A Carbon steel is defined as a steel which has its properties mainly due to its carbon
content and does not contain more than 0.5% of Silicon and 1.5% of Manganese.
Types of Steel:
1. Mild steel- Upto 0.15% Carbon
2. Low carbon Steel(LCS)-0.15 to 0.45% Carbon
3. Medium carbon Steel (MCS)-0.45 to 0.80% Carbon
4. High carbon steel (HCS)-0.80 to 1.5% Carbon
Designation of Steel
According to Indian standard *[IS: 1762 (Part-I)1974], steels are designated on the
following two basis:
(a) On the basis of mechanical properties, and (b) On the basis of chemical
composition.
Steels Designated on the Basis of Mechanical Properties
According to Indian standard IS:1570 (PartI)- 1978 (Reaffirmed 1993), these
steels are designated by a symbol Fe or Fe E depending on whether the steel has
been specified on the basis of minimum tensile strength or yield strength,
followed by the figure indicating the minimum tensile strength or yield stress in
N/mm2.
Example: Fe 290-minimum tensile strength of 290 N/mm2 , Fe E 220-yield strength
of 220 N/mm2.
Example: Fe 620 and Fe E 460 means as ????????
 Steels Designated on the Basis of Chemical Composition

According to Indian standard, IS : 1570 (Part II/Sec I)-1979 (Reaffirmed 1991), the
carbon steels are designated in the following order :

(a) Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon content,

(b) Letter C, and

(c) Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese content. The
figure after multiplying shall be rounded off to the nearest integer.

For example: 20C8 means a carbon steel containing 0.15 to 0.25 per cent (0.2 per
cent on average) carbon and 0.60 to 0.90 per cent (0.75 per cent rounded off to 0.8
per cent on an average) manganese.

Try these: 50 C 12 and 65 C 9??????????

Cast Iron and its Designation
It is an alloy of Iron and Carbon in which maximum carbon lies between 2.1% to 6.67%. But for
general application, only upto 2.1% to 5% carbon is acceptable .
The carbon in Cast Iron is present in the form of Free carbon or Graphite and Combined carbon or
Cementite.
Types of Cast Iron:
1. Grey CI
2. White CI
3. Chilled CI
4. Malleable CI
Designation of CI:
1. The whiteheart, Blackheart and Pearlitic Malleable CI are designated as WM, BM, PM and are
followed by a figure indicating the minimum tensile strength in Mpa or N/mm2.
2. FG (Grey CI) followed by a figure indicating the minimum tensile strength in Mpa or N/mm2.
3. For Example: WM 350- Whiteheart Malleable CI with 350Mpa as Min.Tensile strength.
4. Try These: BM 400, PM 550,WM 400, PM 700, BM 300,SG 800/2 ,SG 400/22?????
Non Ferrous Material:
Properties:
1. Ease of Fabrication
2. Resistance to corrosion
3. Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
4. Weight
Non-ferrous:
1. Aluminum
2. Copper
3. Lead
4. Gun metal
5. Tin
Preferred Number:
In engg design, Many times the designer has to specify the size of the product.
The size of products generally includes different parameters like power transmitting capacity,
Load carrying capacity, speed, Dimensions of the component and volume or weight of the
product.
The system is based on the use of Geometric Progression to develop a set of Numbers.
There are five basic series denoted as R5,R10,R20,R40 and R80 Series which increases in
steps of 58%,26%, 12%, 6%and 3%resp. Each series has its own series factor.
Basic Series:
1. R5 Series ==1.58
2. R10 Series ==1.26
3. R20 Series= =1.12
4. R40 Series= =1.06
5. R80 Series= =1.03
Question for Practice
Let a manufacturer of lifting tackles who wants to introduce nine different models of
capacities ranging from 15 to 100KN. Referring R10 Series; what are the different model
of lifting tackle will be available.
Solution:
Rules:
Take the First Number as 1.Mutiply with the series factor to get the second number .The Second
number is again Multiplied by a series factor to get a third number. This procedure is continued
until the complete series is built up. The nearest numbers are rounded to nearest digit.
 Standardization and
Interchangeability of M/C elements:
Standardization is defined as obligatory norms to which various characteristics of
products should conform.
The characteristics include materials, dimensions and shape of the component, method of
testing, packing and storing of product.
Interchangeability:
It is normally employed for the mass production of identical items within the prescribed
limits of sizes.
A little consideration will show that in order to maintain the sizes of the part within a
close degree of accuracy, a lot of time is required.
But even then there will be small variations. If the variations are within certain limits, all
parts of equivalent size will be equally fit for operating in machines and Mechanisms.
Limits, Fits and Tolerances.
When a assembly is made of two parts, the parts which enters into others is known as
Shafts, and the other in which one enters is known as Hole.
Important Terms Related to Limits:
1. Basic size-It is the size of a part to which all limits of variation (i.e Tolerance) are
applied on order to arrive at final dimensioning of the mating parts. The nominal or
basic size of a part is often the same.
2. Limits of sizes-The largest permissible size for a dimension of the part is called
upper, high or Maximum Limit whereas the smallest size of the part is known as
lower or Minimum Limit.
3. Allowance. It is the difference between the basic dimensions of the mating parts. The
allowance may be positive or negative. When the shaft size is less then hole size
then allowance is positive and when the shaft size is greater than the hole size, then
the allowance is negative.
 Tolerance. It is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a
dimension. In other words, it is the maximum permissible variation in a
dimension. The tolerance may be unilateral or bilateral. When all the tolerance is
allowed on one side of the nominal size, then it is said to be unilateral system of
tolerance . When the tolerance is allowed on both sides of the nominal size, then
it is said to be bilateral system of tolerance limit.
As per I.S, there are 18 grade of tolerance.
Generally, the unilateral system is used in industry.
 Tolerance zone. It is the zone between the maximum and minimum limit size.
Upper deviation. It is the algebraic difference between the maximum size and the
basic size.
Lower deviation. It is the algebraic difference between the minimum size and Basic
size.
 Fundamental deviation. This is the deviation, either the upper or lower deviation
which is nearest one to zero line or basic size of either a Hole or shaft.
 The clearance is the amount by which the actual size of the shaft is less than the
actual size of the mating hole in an assembly. In other words ,Clearance is the
difference between the sizes of the hole and the shaft before assembly. The
difference must be positive.
The interference is the amount by which the actual size of a shaft is larger than
the actual finished size of the mating hole in an assembly. In other words, the
interference is the arithmetical difference between the sizes of the hole and the
shaft, before assembly. The difference must be negative.
Fits
The degree of tightness or looseness between the two mating parts is known Fits.

Types of fits:

1. Clearance fit- In this type of fit, the size limits for mating parts are so selected that
clearance between them always occur, as shown in Fig. (a). In a clearance fit, the
tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above the tolerance zone of the shaft.

In a clearance fit, the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the maximum
size of the shaft is known as minimum clearance whereas the difference between the
maximum size of the hole and minimum size of the shaft is called maximum clearance as
shown in Fig.(a).

The clearance fits may be slide fit, easy sliding fit, running fit, slack running fit and loose
running fit.
2. Interference fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so
selected that interference between them always occur, as shown in Fig. (b).In
an interference fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely below the
tolerance zone of the shaft.

In an interference fit, the difference between the maximum size of the hole
and the minimum size of the shaft is known as minimum interference,
whereas the difference between the minimum size of the hole and the
maximum size of the shaft is called maximum interference, as shown in
Fig. (b).

The interference fits may be shrink fit, heavy drive fit and light drive fit.
 Transition fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts are so
selected that either a clearance or interference may occur depending upon the
actual size of the mating parts, as shown in Fig. (c). In a transition fit, the
tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap.
The transition fits may be force fit, tight fit and push fit.
Basis of Limit System

The following are two bases of limit system:

1. Hole basis system. When the hole is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the lower
deviation of the hole is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying the shaft size,
as shown in Fig. (a), then the limit system is said to be on a hole basis.

2. Shaft basis system. When the shaft is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the upper
deviation of the shaft is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying the hole size, as
shown in Fig.(b), Then the limit system is said to be on a shaft basis.
Note: It may be noted that from the manufacturing point of view, Hole basis system is
preferred. This is because the holes are usually produced and finished by standard tooling
like drill, reamers, etc., whose size is not adjustable easily. On the other hand, the size of
the shaft(which is to go into the hole) can be easily adjusted and is obtained by turning or
grinding operations.
 Problem-1:
The dimensions of the mating parts, according to basic hole system, are given as
Hole : 25.00 mm Shaft : 24.97 mm
25.02 mm 24.95 mm
Find the hole tolerance, shaft tolerance and allowance.
Problem-
 Problem-2:
Calculate the tolerances, fundamental deviations and limits of sizes for the shaft
designated as 40 H8 / f7.