Course Out Lines for Chapter one - three

Basic concepts and definition of Tools and instruments of ground

surveying surveying

Classification of surveying Major techniques of ground

Purpose of surveying surveying position fixing

Measurement of Horizontal
Basic measurement of Surveying
Distances
Importance of surveying
Description of tools and instruments
Basic principles of surveying
Methods of measurement
Units of measurement in surveying
Horizontal distance setting out right
Error and mistakes angles

Accuracy and precision Obstacles in distance measurement

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 1
 Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1. Basic concepts and definition

 Surveying is the science and art of making all essential

measurements to determination of the relative spatial

location of various points on ,above or near the surface of

the earth by means of direct or indirect measurement of

• distance,
• direction and

14/06/2024
• elevation. BY mohamed G 2
 Basic concepts and definition…..con,d

Why is surveying an art and sciene : it depends on the skill,

ability, experience and judgment of the surveyor to:

Measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects,

 Measuring angles between lines,

 Determining the direction of lines, and

 Establishing points by predetermined angular and linear

measurements.

 Distances, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and

volumes are thus determined from the data of the survey.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 3
Basic concepts and definition…..con,d

 As per the Principle ii, the location of a new point involves one of the following.

(a) Measurement of two distances.

(b) Measurement of two angles

(c) Measurement one angle and one distance

 Fig 1: It shows the method of locating R with reference to known length PQ by using the

known distances of PR (l1) and QR (l2)

 Fig 2: It shows the method of locating R with reference to the length PQ by using the known

angles QPR (θ1) and PQR (θ2)

 Fig 3: It shows the method of locating R with reference to known length PQ by using the

known distance of PR (l1) and known angle QPR (θ1)

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 4
What is the object or purpose of surveying?

 The primary object of surveying is to prepare a plan

or map to show the relative position of the objects

on the surface of the earth.

 It is also used to determine the areas, volumes and

other related quantities.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 5
Types of Surveys

 Primary divisions of surveying are made on the basis whether the

curvature of the earth is considered or not .

1. Geodetic Surveying:
• The type of surveying that takes into account the true shape
of the earth

• a very high standard of accuracy is maintained and

• extend over large areas.
 The main object of geodetic surveying is to determine the
precise location of a system of widely spaced points on the
14/06/2024 surface of the earth. BY mohamed G 6
 Types of Surveys

 In geodetic surveying, the earth’s major and minor axes

are computed accurately and a spheroid of reference is
visualized.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 7
 Types of Surveys..

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 8
 Types of Surveys

2. Plane Surveying:
• It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth
(spheroidal shape) is neglected and it is assumed to be a flat
surface(plane).
• All distances and horizontal angles are assumed to be projected
on to a horizontal plane.
A horizontal plane at a point is the plane, which is perpendicular to
the vertical line at that point.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 9
 Types of Surveys…con.d

 Differentiate between plane and geodetic surveying

Sl.No Plane surveying Geodetic surveying
1 The curvature of the earth is The curvature of the earth is
neglected. taken.

2 A line joining any two points is A line joining any two points is
considered straight. considered as curved line.
3 The triangle formed by any three The triangle formed by any three
points is considered as plane points is considered as spherical
triangle triangle

4 It is done on a area less than 250 It is done on a area greater than

Km 2 250 Km 2

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 10
Functional classifications of surveying

A. Based on the purpose, surveys classified in to following types:

1. Control surveying: It consists of establishing the horizontal and
vertical positions of widely spaced control points using the principles
of geodetic surveying.
2. Land surveying: are conducted to determine the boundaries and areas
of tracts of land.
• These are also known as property surveys, boundary surveys or
cadastral surveys.
• Used to provide data for making a plan of the area.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 11
3

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 12
ASTU

Figure 1.1 topographic map

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 13
14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 14
14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 15
Functional classifications of surveying…con,d

8.Astronomic surveys: are conducted for the determination of latitudes,

Azimuths, local time etc.
9. Geological surveys: are conducted to obtain information about
different strata (layer) of the earth’s surface for geological studies.
10. Construction surveys: All the above-mentioned surveys are conducted
to obtain information required for preparation of maps, plans, and sections
etcs.
• After the plans have been prepared and the structures designed, the
construction survey is conducted.
• The points and lines are established on the ground, and the layout plan of
the structure is marked on the ground.
14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 16
Functional classifications of surveying…con,d

B. Classification of survey based on instruments used are:

1. Chain surveying:
2. Leveling surveying
3. Compass surveying:
4. Photogrammetric surveys:
5. Theodolite surveys:
6. EDM Surveys:
7.
14/06/2024
Plane table surveys:
BY mohamed G 17
Functional classifications of surveying…con,d

1. Chain surveying: The simplest type of surveying in

which only linear measurements are taken with a
chain or tape.
2. Compass surveying: used to measured horizontal
angles with the help of a magnetic compass,

3. Photogrammetric surveys: Photogrammetry is a

science of taking measurements with the help of

photographs.
14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 18
 …cont’d
4. Leveling surveying
A type of survey in which a leveling instrument is used for

determination of relative elevations (levels) of

various points in the vertical plane.

leveling
Figure 1.3
BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 19
Functional classifications of surveying…con,d

5. EDM Surveys: is a type of triangulation in which all the three sides

of each triangle are measured accurately with EDM instruments.
The angles are computed indirectly from the known sides of the
triangles.
Thus all the sides and angles are determined.
7. Theodolite surveys: A theodolite is a very precise instrument for
measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
8. Plane table surveys: a map is prepared in the field while viewing
the terrain after determining the directions of various lines and taking
the linear measurements with telescopic alidade.
14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 20
Basic measurement of Surveying

Surveying basically consists of the following four measurements.

1. Horizontal distance: A horizontal distance is measured in a

horizontal plane.

2. Vertical Distance: A vertical distance is measured along the

direction of gravity at that point.

The vertical distances are measured to determine the difference in

elevations (height) of the various points.

3. Horizontal angle: A horizontal angle is measured between two

lines in a horizontal plane.
4. Vertical angle: Vertical angles are measured between two lines in
14/06/2024
a vertical plane.
BY mohamed G 21
Basic measurement of Surveying …. con,d

 Types of Measurements:
• Horizontal angles (O-A-B)
• Horizontal distances (A-B)
• Vertical angles (O-A-C)
• Vertical distances (A-C)
• Slope distances (O-D)

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 22
Figure 1.6 Horizontal angles

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 23
Figure 1.6 Horizontal angles
BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 24
Figure 1.8 vertical angles
BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 25
Importance of Surveying
♠ Surveying involves the measurement of
distances and angles.
♠ The distances may be horizontal or vertical
in direction, where as angles may be
measured in a horizontal or vertical plane.

14/06/2024 26
BY mohamed G
 …cont’d
 There are two fundamental purposes for
measuring distances and angles.
i. To determine the relative positions of existing
points or objects on or near the surface of the
earth.
ii. o layout or mark the desired positions of new
points or objects which are to be placed or
constructed on or near the surface of the earth.
BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 27
…cont’d
♠ Surveying plays an essential role in the
planning, design, layout and construction of our
physical environment and infrastructure.
♠ Surveying is the link between design and construction.

♠ In addition to its customary applications in construction

and land-use projects, surveying is playing an
increasingly important role in modern industrial
technologies.
BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 28
 …cont’d

 every type of construction needs surveying as a

prerequisite whatever may be its type.
All types of engineers, as well as architectures, foresters,
and hydrologists, are concerned with surveying as a means of
planning and laying out their projects, surveying is needed
for subdivisions, buildings, bridges, highways, railroads
canals, piers, wharves, dams, irrigation and drainage
networks, and many other project.

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 29
 Chapter 2. Principles and Theory of Error
Basic principles of measurments

 The main principle of chain surveying or chain

triangulation is to provide a framework consist of

number of well-conditioned triangles or nearly

equilateral triangles.
 In generally there two basic principles of surveying:

(i). Working from whole to part.

(ii). To locate a new station by at least two measurements (angular, linear) from

fixed reference points.

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 30
 Units of measurement in surveying
1. Units of linear measurement in
 1 kilometer = 103m
= 1 km
surveying
 1 mega meter = 106m = 1 Mm
 There are two main systems of
 1 giga meter = 109m = 1 Gm
linear measurements:
 1 tetrameter = 1012m = 1 Tm
1) M.K.S. (meter, kilogram, second)  1 decimeter = 10-1m = 1 dm
metric system (SI=Systems  1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1 cm
International)  1 millimeter = 10-3m = 1 mm
2) F.P.S. (foot, pound, second)  1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1 µm
British system  1 nanometer = 10-9m = 1 nm
a) The SI unit of length is the base  1 picometer = 10-12m = 1 pm
unit meter (m).
 1 decameter = 101m = 1 dam
BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 31
Units of measurement in surveying … con.t
b) The SI unit for area is square meter (m2) and
 the derived units
 1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 m * 100m = 1 ha
 1 square kilometer = 106m2 = 1000m * 1000m = 1km2 = 100ha
c) The SI unit for volume is cubic meter (m3) and
 the derived unit
 1000 cubic millimeters = 1 cubic centimeter
 1000 cubic centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
 1000 cubic decimeters = 1 cubic meter
BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 32
Units of measurement in surveying … con.t

2. Units of angular measurement in surveying

d) The SI units for plane angles

 There are three systems in used for angular unit, namely

sexagesimal graduation, centesimal graduation and radian.
 Radian: The radian is the basic unit of measurement of angles.
 The radiant is defined as that angle where the ratio between the
arc length lb and the radius r of the circle equals 1 (see also
figure 1.3).

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 33
Units of measurement in surveying … con.t
 In a unit circle with the radius 1 the full circle equals 2
rad. 1 full circle = 2 rad
Sexagesimal graduation:
 The circle is divided into 360 parts.
 1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
 10 = 1/360 full circle = 2/360 rad = /180 rad
 10 = 60’ (minutes)
 1’ = 60” (seconds)
BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 34
Units of measurement in surveying … con.t
Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided into 400 parts.
 1 full circle = 400 gon
 1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2/400 rad = /200 rad
 1 gon = 100 cgon (centigon)
 1 cgon = 10 mgon (milligon)
 1 mgon = 10 cc (centi centigon)
Conversion of units
a) Conversion of length
 1 inch = 2.54 cm
 1 foot = 0.3048m
 1 mile = 1.6093 km
BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 35
Units of measurement in surveying … con.t
b) Conversion of area d) Conversion of angles
 1 sq in = 6.4516 sq cm  1 deg = 9/10 gon
 1sq ft = 0.0929 sq m  1 gon = 10/9 deg
 1 sq mile = 2.59 sq km  Example:
c) Conversion of volume  From gon to degree: 48.0488 gon

 1 cu in = 16.387 cu cm 48.0488 gon * 9/10 = 43.2439

 From degree to gon: 43.2439
 1 cu ft = 0.0283 c um
43.2439 * 10/9 = 48.0488 gon

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 36
Units of measurement in surveying … con.t


From degree decimal value to degree, minutes, seconds:

43.2439o

43 + 0.2439
0.2439 * 60 = 14.6340’
0.6340’* 60 = 38”
Result: 43 14’ 38”
 From degree, minutes, seconds to degree decimal value: 4314’ 38”

43 + 14’/60 + 38”/ 3600 = 43.2439 BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 37

 Concept Of Errors and sources In Linear Measurements

 The difference between the measured quantity (x) and its true

value (T) is called error ᘍ ; ᘍ = x-T

where 𝜀 is the error in an observation,
x the measured value, and
T its true value.

 True value (T) is the value of quantity which is free from all
errors.
 True value cannot determined b/se of impossible to eliminate all
errors.
14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 38
 Types of Errors and error sources In Linear Measurements …

…..

 The Errors stem from three error sources, such as instrumental,

natural, and personal.

1. Instrumental errors: Caused by imperfections in instrument

construction or adjustment.

 For example, the divisions on a theodolite or total station

instrument may not be spaced uniformly.

2. Natural errors: caused by changing conditions in the surrounding
environment, these include variations in atmospheric pressure,
temperature, wind, gravitational fields, and magnetic fields.
14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 39
 Types of Errors and error sources In Linear Measurements…

TYPES OF ERRORS: Errors traditionally classified in to three

types:
1. . Gross errors (blunders, mistakes) – need to be eliminated
2. Systematic errors – should be corrected
3. Random (Accidential) errors – are adjusted
1. Gross errors or mistakes.
• It is in fact not errors at all but results of mistakes that are
occurred due to confusion or an observer’s carelessness.

For examples of mistakes: Pointing on the wrong survey target,

incorrect readings on the scale, reading on the wrong scale.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 40
 Types of Errors and error sources In Linear Measurements …

2. SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

These errors follow some physical law, and can be predicted.

• This systematic errors are removed by following correct

observational procedures (e.g. balancing back sight and foresight

distances in differential levelling).

 Examples of systematic errors are

(a) temperature not being standard while taping,

(b) an indexing error of the vertical circle of a total station instrument,

(c) Measuring the distance too short or too long tape.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 41
 Types of Errors and error sources In Linear Measurements …..

3. Accidential/Random errors: These are the errors that remain after all mistakes

and systematic errors have been removed from the observed values.

 In general, the result of human and instrument imperfections.

 They are generally small and are as likely to be negative as positive.

 It is impossible to avoid random errors in measurements entirely.

 Examples of random errors are

(a) imperfect centering over a point during distance measurement with an EDM

instrument,

(b) bubble not centered at the instant a level rod is read, and

(c) small errors in reading graduated scales.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 42
 Precision Versus Accuracy

 Due to errors, repeated measurement of the same quantity

will often yield different values.

 A discrepancy is defined as the algebraic difference between

two observations of the same quantity.

 Many people use the term precision and accuracy

interchangably.

 To understand the difference between precision and

accuracy, based on the value of discrepancies:

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 43
 Precision Versus Accuracy….

1. Accuracy: Accuracy refers to how closely a

measurements or observations come to
measuring a “true value”.
• Accuracy is the measure of the absolute nearness
of an observed quantity to its “true value”.
• For example: the true length of the line is 100 feet, but your

surveyor’s chain measures 100.02 feet is pretty accurate.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 44
 Precision Versus Accuracy….

2. Precision: Precision refers to how closely a

repeated measurements or observation comes to

duplicating measured or observed values.
Examples: If you take measurements of the
distance of a 50.0m standard sample and get
values of 47.5, 47.6, 47.5 & 47.7m, the average your
measurement is 47.6 so, your scale is precise but not very
accurate.
14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 45
 Chapter :3
Measurment
of horizontal
distance
06/14/2024 46
 Measurement of Horizontal Distances ….
3.1. Description of tools and instruments:

One of the most basic operations of surveying is the

determination of horizontal distance between two points
on the earth’s surface.
 In plane surveying, the distance between two points
means a horizontal distance.

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 47
 description of tools and instruments of horizontal
distance
Two principles of measuring distance
1) It takes two points to form a line.
2) The shortest distance between two points is a
straight line

27/02/2023 48
Measurement of Horizontal Distances ……
• The best distance measuring method/device to
use is influenced by many factors. Environment
 Use of the data

 Equipment available
 Personal preference
 Topography
 Client specifications
 Regulations

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 49
Methods of Measuring Distance …..
3.2. Methods of Linear Measurements
……
 There are, in general, three methods of making linear

measurements:
1. Direct methods-
2. Indirect methods(Tacheometric or Optical methods)
3. E.D.M. methods
1. Direct methods:-
 In the direct methods, the distance is actually measured in the

field using a tape.

2.Indirect (commutative methods):- the distance is not
actually measured in the field.
It is computed indirectly from other observed quantities. E.g.
Tachometry.

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 50
Methods of Measuring Distance …..
……
3. EDM methods:-instruments have been developed

quite recently.
 These are basically of two types:
1. Electro optical instruments, which use light waves
for measurement of distance.
2. Microwave instruments, which use radio waves for
measurement of distance.

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 51
Methods of Measuring Distance

 Direct Methods of Measuring Lengths

Chain
Tape
 Approximate method of distance measurment-

Pacing
Car Odometer
Measuring Wheel

 Pacing, Car Odometer, Measuring Wheel are commonly

used in reconnaissance surveying and have large mistakes.

27/02/2023 52
Distance Measuring Methods-- Pacing
Pacing. A person can determine the distance walked by counting
the number of paces made.
The distance can be obtained by multiplying the number of paces by
the average length of the paces(every step one meter ).

• Advantages

• Simple

• Low tech

• No specialized equipment
•Disadvantages
Topography affects accuracy
Requires practice to take a consistent pace
Only measures slope distance.
BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 53
Distance Measuring Methods– - Car-odometer
 An odometer is a distance measuring device from one
point to another by using a vehicle, such as a bicycle or a
car.

 It gives less precise measurement as there are so many

errors not under our control.

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 54
Equipment Used in Chain Surveying
1- Equipment Used for the measurements of lines :
A- The chain

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 55
 Equipment Used in Chain Surveying ……
B. Measuring distance by tapes
 Tapes are used in surveying to take linear measurements.
 They are available in different lengths and can be made of
different materials
 Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types depending upon
the material used in their manufacture.
1. Liner or cloth tapes.
2. Glass-fiber tapes
3. Metallic tapes
4. Steel tapes
5. Invar tap

BY mohamed G 14/06/2024 56
 Equipment Used in Chain Surveying cont…
cont.

1. Metallic tapes: - are similar to liner tapes but are made of

varnishedwater proof fabric or glass fiber.
In metallic tapes every metre is divided into 100 divisions (cms).
2. Linen or cloth Tapes:- are made of linen or cloth.
The tape is light and handy but not very accurate.

It is available in length of 10m, 20m, 25m and 30m.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 57
 Equipment Used in Chain Surveying cont…
cont.

2. Steel tapes: - are more accurate than metallic tapes.

• In steel tapes, the centimetre division are also
subdivided.
• Metallic tape and steel tapes are most commonly
used.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 58
 Equipment Used in Chain Surveying cont…
cont.

5. Invar Tapes:- Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and
nickel (36%) which has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Invar tapes are used for linear measurements of very high
precision.
Glass –fiber taps: - are similar to liner and plastic coated tapes but these are
made of glass-fiber. The tapes are quite flexible, strong and non-conductive.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 59
 Equipment Used in Chain Surveying cont…
cont.

Other Equipment (accessories) required for a chain

survey:
Metre Chain or tape
 Chain Pins (arrows)
 Measuring Tape
 Ranging rod/Offset rod
 Pegs, Plumb bob,
 Cross staff and
 Mallet, Laths or whites,

a- Ranging Rods: 2m, 2.5m, 3m long & painted red and

white each 0.5m with a
pointed steel shoe.

Ranging rods hold by ranging rod tripods

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 60
 Equipment Used in Chain Surveying cont…
cont.

b- Arrows: 40cm long & 3- 4 mm in diameter.

 Arrows in surveying are the marking pins that are mostly
used in chain surveying. They are used to mark the end
of the chain length.

c- Pegs: wooden (square or circular cross-section) & steel

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 61
 Equipment Used in Chain Surveying cont…
cont.

d- Plumb Bob: a metallic cone object used to erect vertical

lines.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 62
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…
cont.

3.3. Horizontal distance setting out right angles

Distance measurement techniques on slopping ground:
1. Ranging out lines, on slopping ground
 The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight
line is known as ranging out or aligning in surveying.
• It is necessary to establish intermediate points on a line if the
distance is greater than one tape lengths.
• The ranging out ensures that the straight distance between two
points is measured.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 63
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…

• The procedure is as follows in figures:

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 64
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…
cont.

2. Basic Trigonometry functions for Distance and Angular

Measurements on slopping ground:
 In surveying, all distances are measured with
reference to the horizontal plane.
I) Angle of inclination (direct method): Land with
a slope of 3° or less is usually considered as level,
since the difference between the length of the slope
measurement and the horizontal measurement is
negligible.
14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 65
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…
cont.

Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to
the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

C ² = A² + B²
Sine A = Opposite Side / Hypotenuse
cosine A= Adjacent Side / Hypotenuse
Tangent A = Opposite Side / Adjacent Side

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 66
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…

The surveyor will determine, by eye, the horizontality of

the chain (i.e. when it is at a right angle to the plumb-line)
and an arrow is then inserted into the ground .

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 67
 Measurement of Horizontal distance
cont.
cont…
2. In direct method:-
 If the slope of the ground is high slope or gentle , to use indirect
method.
Let the sloping length of ith , segment be Li &slope angle( ᶿi)
Then the total H. length of line is

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 68
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…

3.4. Obstacles in distance measurement

Obstacles in Chain surveying
 Various types of obstacles generally met during
chaining.
 Two types of Obstacles occurred in the field.
1. Both end points are not inter visible each other but
they are visible from intermediate points
2. Both end points are not visible from intermediate
points
14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 69
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…

1 .Obstacles which obstruct ranging from intermediate points but of

chaining
 This obstacle may be over come by the method of reciprocal ranging.
So select two intermediate points M1&N1 very near to the chain line AB
such that from M1 , both N1 &B are visible, and from N1 both M1 &A
are visible.

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 70
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…

2. Obstacles, which obstruct chaining but not ranging

Typical obstructions are –large water bodies like lake, ponds ,Rivers ,
Buildings etc
Two cases are discussed below
i) It is possible to chain round the obstacle
ii) It is not possible to chain round the obstacl
Case-1 when possible to chain round an obstacle.

Method-1 by constructing rectangles Length of AC=BD

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 71
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…

Method-2 by constructing right-angle triangle

Required to know the length AB along the pond
AB= √(BC2-AC2) = √(L22 _ L21)

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 72
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…

From triangle∆ BDC , Cosa=( BC2+DC2-BD2)/2*BC*DC

From triangle
∆ 2 2
ABC, AB=(BC +AC -2BC*AC*
Cosa)½

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 73
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…

Method –3 by constructing similar triangle

• Required to know length of AB
• Length of AB = length of ED

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 74
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…

Case II when chaining round an obstacle is not possible

 There are a number of examples to overcome this problem is
crossing a big river by chain surveying.
Method –1 by constructing similar triangle, The two points A&B are on both
sides of the river.
 Set out perpendicular AD
Set C at mid point of line AD, or bisect AD at C
Set out perpendicular DE at D
Range E with line BC ,Or E is on the line of sight of CB
Then measure DE ,Now from triangles ABC & DCE,
Then AB=DE

14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 75
 Measurement of Horizontal distance cont…

Obstacles to both chaining and ranging

Typical examples such obstacle is building.
-Choose two points left to the building (i.e. A&B) as shown fig below . Draw
perpendicular AC & BD on these two points.
-Make line AC=BD
-Join CD & extend it past the obstacle, i.e. building.
-Select two points on extended CD and
- draw perpendicular EG and FH on E & F.
-Make EG=FH=CA=DB.

-Evidently
14/06/2024 BG=DE and AH=CF which can
BY mohamed G be measured. 76
 CHAPTER FOUR
MEASURING
VERTICAL
DISTANCE

06/14/2024 77
 Outline
Outlines

Definition of Levelling

Principles of Levelling

Elevation and Contour

Contour Characteristics

06/14/2024 78
 Definition of Levelling

• Leveling is a method of surveying used for

determination of the difference of elevations or
levels of various points on the surface of the
earth. or

• Levelingis the process to determine vertical distances or

difference of elevations of various points above,
on or below the surface of the earth.

• The elevation of a point is its vertical distance

above
27/02/2023 or below a reference level, called datum. 79
 Basic definitions in
levelling
• The vertical distance of a point above or below a given
reference surface is called the elevation of the point.

1. Station: a point whose elevation is to be determined where

the rod is held

2. Elevation: vertical distance above or below the datum

3. Benchmark (BM): a fixed point of reference with assumed

datum or known elevation.

4. Back sight (BS): the 1st staff reading from a point of known
elevation; “+” sight. To obtain HI
06/14/2024 80
 Basic definitions in levelling [con’d]

5. Fore sight (FS): the last staff reading from a point of

unknown elevation; “-” sight

6. Intermediate sight (IS): other staff reading b/n BS and FS

from a point of unknown elevation

7. Turning point (TP)(CP): a point where both BS and FS

readings are taken. Shifting of the instrument.

8. Height of instrument (HI): the relative elevation of line of

sight compared to elevation of the BM when the instrument
is leveled.
06/14/2024 81
 Basic definitions in levelling
[con’d]

06/14/2024 82
 Basic definitions in levelling
[con’d]
9.Balancing of sights: When the distances of the stations
where back sight and fore sight are taken from the
instrument station, are kept approximately equal, it is
known as balancing of sights.

10.Reduced level (R.L.): Reduced level of a point is its

height or depth above or below the assumed datum.
 It is the elevation of the point.

06/14/2024 83
 Basic definitions in levelling
[con’d]
10. LEVEL LINE : A line lying in a level surface is a
level line. It is thus a curved line.
11. datum is a reference surface of constant potential,
called as a level surface of the earth’s gravity field,
(The most commonly used reference surface is mean
sea level (MSL).
12. Line of sight : the line passing through the optical centre of
the objective traversing the eye-piece and entering the eye.

) 14/06/2024 BY mohamed G 84
 Basic definitions in levelling
[con’d]
Fundamental Surveying and leveling

06/14/2024 85
 Types of Levels:

• There are three main types of levels which can be

used for Differential Levelling:
1. Dumpy Level
2. Tilting level
3. Automatic Level

06/14/2024 86
 1. Dumpy Level :
This level was commonly used in surveying work until
the last few decades.
Although these excellent, strong, and long – lasting
devices have very largely been replaced with more
modern instruments,

06/14/2024 87
 2. Tilting Level:

• A tilting level is one whose telescope can be

tilted or rotated about its horizontal axis.

06/14/2024 88
 3. Automatic or Self – levelling Level: Automatic levels
are the more modern standard instruments used by
today’s surveyor.

This type of level is very easy to set up and to use and

is available with almost any desired range of
precision.

06/14/2024 89
 Automatics Levels
from LEIKA

06/14/2024 90
 Levelling Equipments

The Staff or Level Rods: The levelling staff

is used to determine the amount by which the
point where staff is held is above or below the
line of sight.
The levelling staves are made of wood or
aluminium and marked with graduations in
meters and decimals or feet and decimals.

06/14/2024 91
06/14/2024 92
06/14/2024 93
 Tripods

A tripod is a three- legged stand used to support a

level or other surveying instrument during field
measurements.

Tripod fixed leg tripod

06/14/2024 94
 Preparing levels for work (Adjustment of level)
1. Setting up: Set up the tripod at a convenient height and
press the tripod feet firmly into the ground. The tripod
head should be approximately horizontal. Fix the
instrument on it.
2. Leveling up: Level the instrument with the foot screws
until the circular bubble is in the centre.

06/14/2024 95
3. Focusing: First focus the eyepiece until the
cross hairs appear sharp and clear then point the
telescope towards the object (staff) and focus
until you see clearly the graduation of target
point

06/14/2024 96
06/14/2024 97
 levelling con’t…

 Principle of levelling:
» Change point

» Length of back sight & fore sight

» Starting (BS) and ending point (FS)

» Position of level
 Method of Levelling

Types of Leveling in Surveying

1. Direct leveling

2. In Direct (Trigonometric) leveling

3. Stadia and Barometric leveling

27/02/2023 99
 Method of Levelling… Cont’d

A)Indirect ( Trigonometric) levelling is an indirect procedure; the

vertical distances are computed from vertical and horizontal or slope
distance data.

Vertical angles are required to measure by theodolite.

• The difference of levels is determined by applying the principles of

trigonometry.

 It is also applied for topo work over rough terrain or other

obstacles.

 For accomplishing this kind of levelling a theodolite or transit is

required the distance are taken by stadia method or by means
of EDM methods.
06/14/2024 100
06/14/2024 101
 … Cont’d

06/14/2024 102
 Method of Levelling… Cont’d

• To find the Reduce level / Elevation At Point B , we are given with data :
• hi = 6.86 ft
• RL at BM – 068 = 230.5 ft
• < BAC = 53.8°

• Horizontal Distance D = 600 ft

• In order to find the Reduce level at Point B

• 𝑅𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐵 = RL at station + hi + Vertical distance (h)

• But first to find the vertical distance h by using trigonometric

ratios

• Now
06/14/2024 103
 Method of levelling con’t…

Trigonometric levelling

 V= s sin‘=41.54ft.
 Ele.at ⊼+hi
 361.29+4.72-41.54-4.00 = 320.47= Ele.at rod.
 Method of Levelling …..[con’d]
B)Direct leveling: It is the most commonly used method of leveling.

In this method, measurements are observed directly from leveling

instrument.

Based on the observation points and instrument positions direct

leveling is divided into different types as follows:

Simple Leveling

Differential Levelling

Reciprocal Levelling

Profile Levelling

Crossectional levelling

06/14/2024 105
 Method of Levelling….[con’d]

1. Simple Leveling is required to find the difference in

elevations between two points. Both points should be visible
from a single position of the level.

In the above figure, A and B are two points and O is the

level instrument set up station which is approximately
27/02/2023 106
 Method of Levelling ….con’t…

B. Differential levelling

• Differential levelling, which is the process of determining the

difference in elevation between two points; When it used this
method:
A. If they are too far apart
B. If the difference in elevation between them is too great.
C. If there is obstacles intervening.
• In differential levelling, each of the successive points TP1, TP2
etc, is called a change point and read twice, one before and the
second time after, the instrument is shifted.
 Method of Levelling .. ..con’t…

• Elevation BM2 = Elevation BM1 + ∑BS – ∑FS

• Elevation of intermediate points, if required, may be found as;
• Elevation of a point = Elevation of BM + BS –FS.

Figure: Differential levelling

 Method of levelling con’t…

 The usual form for recording differential levelling notes is presented in

the table below
Differential levelling Date _____________ Instrument man
BM1 to BM2 Instrument____________ ________

PT BS HI FS Elevation Remark
BM1 12.64 112.64 - 100.00
TP1 10.88 120.41 3.110 109.53
TP2 9.72 127.57 2.560 117.85
BM2 - - 3.100 124.47
∑ 33.24 8.77
∑ BS-∑FS = Ele.BM2- Ele.BM1
33.24 – 8.77 = 124.47 – 100.00
= 24.47 Must be equal = 24.47
Arithmetic Check
 Method of levelling con’t…

C. Profile Levelling
 The process of determining the elevation of points at short
measured intervals along a fixed line.
 It used to obtain the accurate outline of the surface of the ground and
undulation of the ground surface along a predetermined line.
• The levelling operation always starts from a bench mark (BM) end on a bench
mark.
• If the permanent bench mark is not near the line of section, run differential
or flying levels from the permanent bench mark to establish a bench mark near
the line of section.
• The vertical scale is greater than horizontal scale for drawing the profile.
 Method of levelling con’t…

• Profile levelling Used:

(1) To decide the most suitable and economic levels and gradients to which the ground
should be worked.
(2) To supply details along the section of the amount of cut/fill.
(3) To record places where the formation level intersects the ground level.

Figure profile levelling

 Method of levelling con’t…

D. Cross-section levelling
• Is to provide levels on either side of the main line at right
angles, to determine the vertical section of the earth’s surface on
the ground.

• Cross-sections are used in road construction to estimate the

earth works (filling or cutting).

• For construction of road levelling along centre line (profile) at

every cross section is performed.
 Method of levelling con’t…

Example of cross section levelling field books

Distances(m)
Station BS IS FS HI Elevation Remark
L C R
Cross-section at
BM 0.675 100.675 100
0m chainage
O 0 1.115 99.560 L= left
L1 5 1.250 99.425 C= centre
L2 10 1.355 99.320 R = right
L3 15 1.805 98.870
R1 5 2.105 98.570
R2 10 2.315 98.360
R3 15 2.595 98.080
CP 2.675 98.000
Check ∑BS – ∑FS = Elevation of last reading- Elevation of first reading.
0.675 – 2.675 = 98.000 – 100.000
-2 = -2
 Method of levelling con’t…

E. Reciprocal levelling

When a line of levels crosses a broad body of water it is impossible

to balance the back sight and foresight distances and is not

possible to setup the level between two points due to an

intervening obstructions such as large water bodies, in this case we

use reciprocal levelling.

 Method of levelling con’t…

Example:
Solution
If a = 1.442 m
b = 1.911 m
c = 1.768 m
d = 2.325 m and
E1eA = 1980.04 – 0.513 = 1979.887m
El of BM1 = 1980.40 m so:
 Method of levelling con’t…

Difficulties in levelling
1. Staff station above the line of sight

2. Staff station much below the line of sight

3.Staff to near the instrument

• If the staff is too near the instrument, the graduations are not visible.
Methods of reduction of levels , Level field books and
arithmetic check

• A level field book or a level book is used for booking and

reducing the levels of various points on the surface of
the earth.

• The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used

as check on the computations.

• The following rules are used in the two methods of

reduction of levels.

• (a) For the height of instrument method

• (b) Rise and fall method

06/14/2024 117
 Methods of reduction of levels ….

(a) Height of the instrument (HI) or collimation method

 In this method, height of instrument at first instrument station is
obtained by adding back sight (BS) reading on the bench mark
(BM) whose elevation is known.
 Readings taken at different stations from that height of instrument
is (HI) is intermediate station readings.
 Elevations of intermediate station points are obtained by
subtracting the readings from HI.
 Methods of reduction of levels con’t…

 When the instrument is required to shift to an instrument station the last reading from
the first HI is the fore sight (FS) reading.

Table .1 Height of instrument method

 Methods of reduction of levels con’t…

 Height of instrument method

Station BS IS FS HI Elevation(RL) Remark
A 2.51 102.510 100 BM
B 3.105 99.405
C 2.715 99.795
D 2.510 100
E 2.710 4.125 101.095 98.385 TP/CP
F 3.250 97.845
G 2.605 98.490
∑BS= 5.22 ∑FS= 6.730

Check (i). ∑BS – ∑FS = Elevation of last- Elevation of first

(ii) Σ [H.I. × (No. of I.S.’s + 1)] – Σ I.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ R.L. – First R.L
 Methods of reduction of levels con’t…

b. Rise and fall method

• In this method height of instrument is not required to determine the
difference of level between consecutive points.
• The difference between their staff reading indicates rise or fall depending on
the preceding point.
 Methods of reduction of levels con’t…
Station BS IS FS Rise Fall Elevation Remark
RL.

• A 2.51
Example 100 BM
B 3.105 0.595 99.405

C 2.715 0.390 99.795

D 2.510 0.205 100

E 2.710 4.125 1.615 98.385

F 3.250 0.540 97.845

G 2.605 0.645 98.490

∑BS=5.22 ∑FS=6.730 ∑Rise=1.24 ∑Fall=2.750

Check: ∑BS – ∑FS = ∑Rise- ∑Fall = Elevation of last - Elevation of first

5.22 - 6.730 = 1.24 - 2.750 = 98.49 - 100
-1.510 = -1.510 = -1.510