COMPUTER NETWORK

by
Dr Soumya Ranjan Mishra
 What is a Computer Network?
• Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical
fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network.

• The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.

• In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that vary from
simple to complex level.
Components Of Computer Network:

Network Interface
Card
 NIC(National interface card)
NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device. The network interface
card contains the hardware addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to identify the
system on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

• Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC, a connection is made
using the antenna that employs the radio wave technology.

• Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium
 Hub

Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When computer
requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this request
to all the interconnected computers.

Switches

Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data to
another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network,
i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that switch
sends the message directly from source to the destination.
Hub Switches
A Router is a networking device that operates under the network layer of the OSI model and is used to connect
two or more networks. It is a device that establishes a common link between networks to enable data flow
between them.
 Cables and connectors

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three types of
cables:

Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.

Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more expensive
than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.

Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light beams. It
provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more expensive as compared
to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.
Router

Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is mainly used to connect the
distinct networks or connect the internet to multiple computers.

Modem

Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not
integrated with the computer motherboard. A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on the
motherboard.
 Uses Of Computer Network

Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and data
among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the resource and
user.

Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a central
computer used to store the information and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the
machines used to access the information stored in the server remotely.

Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the users.
For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the employees
use for daily communication.

E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the
internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their
business over the internet.
 Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data.

Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

• Peer-To-Peer network

• Client/Server network
 Peer-To-Peer network
• Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.

• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.

• Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.

• Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to
a problem if the computer with the resource is down.
 Client/Server Network

• Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.

• The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are called
clients.

• A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.

• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.

• All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to send
some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server
sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.
 Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:

Computer Network Types

• LAN(Local Area Network)

• PAN(Personal Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(Local Area Network)

• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.

• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

• Local Area Network provides higher security.

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network.

• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.

• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.

• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).
WAN(Wide Area Network)

A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.

A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.

The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
 What is Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to each
other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.

Transmission modes
Computer Network Models

A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software. Early attempts for
implementing the software for such subsystems were based on a single, complex, unstructured
program with many interacting components. The resultant software was very difficult to test and modify.

To overcome such problem, the ISO has developed a layered approach. In a layered approach,
networking concept is divided into several layers, and each layer is assigned a particular task.
Therefore, we can say that networking tasks depend upon the layers.

The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.

Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.

Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information with peer entity.
These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order of the messages used.

Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to another layer.
Why do we require Layered architecture?

Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process in such a

way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks. In short, we can say
that this approach reduces the complexity of the design.

Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the independence of layers,
which is easier to understand and implement.

Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one layer can be
changed without affecting other layers.

Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested individually.
OSI Model

• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information
from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.

• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.

• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it
is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.

• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned
a particular task.

• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.
Characteristics of OSI Model:
An exchange using the OSI model
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of

each layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Physical layer
Note
• Physical layer: This layer is responsible for the
physical transmission of data over a network medium,
such as a cable or a wireless signal.
Data link layer
Note
• Data link layer: This layer is responsible for error
detection and correction. It ensures that data is
transmitted without errors.
Hop-to-hop delivery
Network layer

2.36
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

This layer is responsible for routing data between two

systems. It determines the best path for data to travel from
the source to the destination.
Source-to-destination delivery
Transport layer
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

This layer is responsible for ensuring that data is delivered

reliably. It breaks data up into smaller packets, and then
reassembles the packets at the destination.
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Session layer
Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

This is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and

terminating connections between applications on different
devices.

Its primary function is to provide synchronization,

checkpointing, and recovery services to ensure reliable
communication and data exchange between applications.
Note
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.

This is responsible for ensuring that data exchanged

between applications on different devices is in a format
that can be understood by both parties.

Its primary function is to translate, encrypt, or compress

data to ensure seamless communication between
applications with different data formats, character sets,
and data structures.
Application layer
Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
Summary of layers
TCP/IP model

• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.

• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data
link layer and physical layer.

• The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport
functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are
represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.

• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides
specific functionality.
Real-Time Case Study: OSI Layered Architecture in Web Browsing
Layer 7 - Application Layer:
Consider a user, Alice, who wants to access a website (e.g., www.example.com) using her web
browser (e.g., Google Chrome). At the Application Layer, the web browser initiates the request to
view the webpage.

Layer 6 - Presentation Layer:

The Presentation Layer comes into play if the website uses encryption (HTTPS). The web browser
encrypts the HTTP request using SSL/TLS to ensure secure communication with the web server.

Layer 5 - Session Layer:

A session is established between Alice's web browser and the web server. The Session Layer
manages session creation, maintenance, and termination for the web browsing session.

Layer 4 - Transport Layer:

At this layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensures reliable and ordered delivery of data.
The web browser divides the HTTP request into smaller packets and numbers them. It also handles
any packet loss and retransmits the packets if needed.
Layer 3 - Network Layer:
The Internet Protocol (IP) comes into play at this layer. The web browser adds the IP address of the
web server to the packets, allowing routers to determine the best path for the packets to reach the
destination (www.example.com).

Layer 2 - Data Link Layer:

The packets are further divided into frames, and the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of
the next-hop devices (routers/switches) are added to the frames. This enables local network delivery
of frames.

Layer 1 - Physical Layer:

The frames are converted into electrical/optical signals for transmission over the physical
medium, such as Ethernet cables or wireless signals, to reach the local network router.

Transmission Medium (Physical Layer):

The signals travel through various network devices, including routers and switches, across the
Internet infrastructure until they reach the web server's physical location.
Layer 4 - Transport Layer (at Web Server's end):
The TCP protocol handles the reassembly of packets into the original HTTP request, ensuring that the
data is error-free and in the correct order.

Layer 3 - Network Layer (at Web Server's end):

The IP address of the web server is used to route the packets to the correct application layer (web
server software) running on the server.

Layer 2 - Data Link Layer (at Web Server's end):

The frames are processed at the Data Link Layer, where the MAC address of the web server's network
interface is used to ensure that the frames are delivered to the correct destination.

Layer 1 - Physical Layer (at Web Server's end):

The electrical/optical signals are received by the web server's network interface.
.

Layer 7 - Application Layer (at Web Server's end):

The web server's application layer processes the HTTP request and generates an appropriate
response, such as fetching the requested webpage from a database or a file system.

Layer 6 - Presentation Layer (at Web Server's end):

If Alice's web browser sent an encrypted request (HTTPS), the web server decrypts it using
SSL/TLS.

Layer 5 - Session Layer (at Web Server's end):

The Session Layer manages the session established with Alice's web browser to maintain and
terminate the connection
Functions of TCP/IP layers:
 Switching

1. Circuit-Switched Networks
2. Datagram Networks
3. Virtual-Circuit Networks
 Switching
• Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between
two or more devices linked to the switch
Taxonomy of Switched Networks
 Circuit-switched Network
• A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical links, in which
each link is divided into n channels

• In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the setup phase; the resources
remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown phase.
Circuit-Switched Network: Example 1
Circuit-Switched Network: Example 2
 Circuit Switching
• Three phases
– Setup phase, data transfer phase, teardown phase

• Delay in a circuit-switched network

 Datagram Networks
• In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation; resources are allocated on
demand

• In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others. Sometimes referred
to as connectionless networks
 Routing Table
• A switch in a datagram networks uses a routing table that is based on the destination address

• The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram network remains the same
during the entire journey of the packet

Spring 2007 Data Communications, Kwangwoon 8-63

University
 Delay in a Datagram Network
• Datagram network may have greater delay than a virtual-circuit network
even though no setup and teardown phase
• Delay is not uniform
 Virtual-Circuit Networks
• Setup, data transfer, and teardown phases as in a circuit-switched network (CSN)

• Resource allocated during setup phase, as in a CSN, or on demand as in a datagram

network (DN)

• As in DN, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the header. The
address has local jurisdiction, not end-to-end jurisdiction.

• As in CSN, all packets follow the same path established during the connection

• VCN is normally implemented in the data link layer, while CSN is in physical layer and DN in
the network layer
Virtual-Circuit Network
 Addressing
• Two types of addressing in a virtual-circuit network: global and local (virtual-circuit identifier:
VCI)

• Global address is used only to create a VCI

• Virtual Circuit Identifier

 Three Phases
• Data transfer phase, setup phase, teardown phase

• Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

Setup Phases: Setup Request
Setup Phases: Acknowledgement
 Data Transfer Phases
• Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network
 Delay in a Virtual-Circuit Network
• In virtual-circuit switching, all packets belonging to the same source and destination travel the
same path; but the packets may arrive at the destination with different delays if resource
allocation is on demand.
 Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching technique will
decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communicatio n.
Circuit Switching

• Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between sender and
receiver.

• In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated path will
remain to exist until the connection is terminated.

• Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.

• A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.

• In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a request
signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the
availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the
data.

• Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice transmission.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

• Circuit establishment

• Data transfer

• Circuit Disconnect
Packet Switching

• The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is
divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.

• The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.

• Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.

• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.

• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.

• If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.
 Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:
Virtual Circuit Switching
• It is a packet switching technology in which packet is
known as a datagram, is considered as an independent
• Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as
entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward the connection-oriented switching.
packet to the correct destination.
• In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a
• The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in preplanned route is established before
correct order. the messages are sent.
• In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not • Call request and call accept packets are
fixed.
used to establish the connection between
• Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward sender and receiver.
the packets.
• In this case, the path is fixed for the
• Datagram Packet Switching is also known as duration of a logical connection.
connectionless switching.
virtual circuit switching
• In the above diagram, A and B are the
sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2
are the nodes.

• Call request and call accept packets are

used to establish a connection between the
sender and receiver.

• When a route is established, data will be

transferred.

• After transmission of data, an

acknowledgment signal is sent by the
receiver that the message has been
received.

• If the user wants to terminate the

connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.

It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data transmission.

It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data can be
transmitted.

It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required for each
connection.

It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred, then the
capacity of the path is wasted.

In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred even if the
channel is free.
Datagram Packet switching:

It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an

independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses this
information to forward the packet to the correct destination.

The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.

Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.

Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages are
sent.

Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and
receiver.

In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
In Datagram packet switching each packet has all the necessary information like Source address, destination
address etc. So each packet is treated independently. They can choose different routes for transmitting data inside
the network. There is no predefined route. So, the packets can be received in any sequence at the destination.
Packets in this approach are called datagrams. Datagram approach can cause the datagrams to reach the
destination out of order
VC Packet Switching is an approach in which a logical path or virtual circuit connection is done between
sender and receiver. VC stands for Virtual Circuit. Thus, a predefined route is created and all packets will follow
these predefined paths. In this logical connection, all routers or switches are provided with a unique Virtual Circuit
ID to uniquely identify the virtual connections. It also has the same three-phase protocol used in circuit
switching – Setup Phase, Data Transfer Phase and Tear down Phase.
Advantages Of Packet Switching:
Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require massive secondary
storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the
packet switching technique is a cost-effective technique.

Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that the Packet
Switching technique provides reliable communication.

Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any established path prior to
the transmission, and many users can use the same communication channel simultaneously, hence
makes use of available bandwidth very efficiently.
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require low delay and
high-quality services.

The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires high
implementation cost.

If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost packets. It can also
lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.