BUILDING CONSTRUCTION-I
AR.KAMAL SINGH
LECTURE AT MECHINAGAR
POLYTECHNIC INSTITUES
DIPLOMA IN
ARCHITECTURE II/I
CHAPTER.2 (10hr )
FOUNDATION (SUPER STRUCTURE)
2.1. Definition, purpose and function
2.2. Simple soil mechanics
2.2.1 Types of soil, properties and bearing capacities
2.2.2 Methods of improving bearing capacity of soil
2.2.3 Soil explanation/investigation (test pit)
2.3 Loading on foundation- live load, dead load, &
other loads.
2.4 Simple spread foundation
2.4.1 Elements, concrete bed, footing courses,
foundation masonry
CHAPTER.2
FOUNDATION (SUPER STRUCTURE)
2.4.2 Empirical methods for design of footing
2.4.3 Construction details
2.4.4 Types of foundation (shallow foundation only)
FOUNDATION
Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the
civil structure that is in direct contact with the soil
which transfers loads from the structure to the soil
safely .
foundation are two types
1.shallow foundation
2.deep foundation
shallow foundation type
Ifthe depth of footing less or equal to the Width of
footing, it is known as the shallow Foundation
type of shallow foundation
1.Spread footing or open trench foundations
2.Grillage foundations
3.Raft foundations
4.Stepped foundations
5.Inverted arch foundations
deep foundation
If the depth of footing greater or equal to the Width
of footing, it is known as the deep Foundation
type of deep foundation
1.Pile foundations
2.pier
3.Caisson or well foundations
pile
Pilefoundations are the part of a structure used to
carry and transfer the load of
the structure to the bearing ground located at some
depth below ground
pile foundatio fig
pier foundation
The foundation which is constructed to bear the
heavy load from the superstructure with the help
of a pile below the soil and cylindrical columns
called a pier foundation
pier foundation
pier foundation
Caisson or well foundations
a caisson is defined as a type of foundation in the
shape of a hollow prismatic box, which is constructed
above the ground level and then sunk to the desired
depth.
Caisson or well foundations
purposed of foundation
Allengineering structures are provided with
foundations at the base to fulfill the following
zobjectives and purposes
1.To distribute the load of the structure over a large
bearing area so as to bring intensity of loading within
the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
2.To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as
to prevent unequal settlement.
purposed of foundation
3. to prevent unequal settlement.
4.To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting
material.
4.To secure a level and firm bed for building
operations.
5.To increase the stability of the structure as a
whole.
function of foundation
1. Reduction of load intensity
Foundations distribute the loads of the super-
structure, to a larger area so that the intensity of the
load at its base (i.e. total load divided by the total
area).
2. Even distribution of load
Foundations distribute the nonuniform load of the
super-structure evenly to be sub-soil. For example,
two columns carrying unequal loads can have a
combined footing which may transmit the load to sub-
function of foundation
3. Provision of level surface
foundations provide levelled and hard surface over
which the super-structure can be built.
function of foundation
4. Lateral stability
It anchors the super-structure to the ground, thus
imparting lateral stability to the super-structure. The
stability of the buildlng, against sliding and
overturning, due to horizontal forces (such as wind,
earthquake etc.) is increased due to foundations
function of foundation
5. Safety against undermining
It provides the structural safety against
undermining or scouring due to burrowing animals
and flood water.
6. Protection against soil movements
Special foundation measures prevents or minimises
the distress (or cracks) in the super-structure, due to
expansion or contraction of the sub-soil because of
moisture movement in sorne problematic soils.
What is soil?
Soil is a mixture of broken rocks and minerals, living
organisms, and decaying organic matter.soil also
includes air and water.
What is soil?
type of soil?
1. Sand
It is most extensively used construction material. It
consists of particles of rock and hard minerals, such
as silicon dioxide.
2. Clay
Clay particles are the finest of all the soil particles,
measuring fewer than 0.002 mm in size. It consists of
microscopic and sub-microscopic particles derived
from the chemical decomposition of rocks.
3.silt
Silt is a sediment material with an intermediate size
between sand and clay. Carried by water during flood
it forms a fertile deposit on valleys floor. The particle
size of silt ranges from 0.002 and 0.06 mm.
4.loam
Loam is a mixture of clay, sand and silt and benefits
from the qualities of these 3 different textures,
favouring water retention, air circulation, drainage
and fertility. These soils are fertile, easy to work with
and provide good drainage. Depending on their
predominant composition they can be either sandy or
clay loam.
properties aof soil
1.physicalpropperties
2.chemical properties
physical propperties
a. Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the size of the soil particles that
is dependent on the relative proportions of mineral
components like sand, silt, and clay.
Soil texture is further influenced by soil porosity,
infiltration, and water retention capacity.
The texture of soil differs with soil type; sandy soil
feels gritty, silt feels smooth, and clay is sticky and
mouldable.
physical propperties
b. Soil Structure
The textural components of soil, including sand, silt,
and clay might result in aggregates as a result of their
clumping. The aggregates further clump together to
form peds.
Information on the structure of soil gives information
on the soil texture, matter content, and biological
activity.
Soil structure is influenced by physical processes
that might be improved or destroyed by the choice of
farming practices
physical propperties
c.Soil Density
The average soil particle density ranges from 2.60 to
2.75 grams per cm3, which usually remains
unchanged for a given soil.
The soil particle density is lower for soils with high
organic matter content and higher for soil with higher
mineral content.
physical propperties
d. Soil Porosity
Soil porosity is defined by the number of pores
present within the soil.
The porosity of soil is determined by the movement
of air and water within the soil.
Healthy soils usually have more number of pores
between and within soil aggregates, whereas poor
quality soils have few pores or cracks
physical propperties
e. Soil consistency
Soil consistency refers to the ability of the soil to
stick to itself or other objects and to resist
deformation and rupture.
Three moisture conditions define soil consistency;
air-dry, moist, and wet.
physical propperties
f.Soil Colour
Soil color is determined primarily by the organic
composition of the soil.
Soil color is one of the factors that help in the
prediction of other soil characteristics within a soil
profile
chemical propperties
a. Cation exchange capacity
Cation exchange capacity is the maximum amount of
total cations that a soil sample is capable of holding at
a given pH.
The cation exchange capacity of the soil is taken as
an indicator of soil fertility, nutrient retention, and the
ability of soil to protect groundwater from cation
contamination
chemical propperties
b. Soil pH
The reactivity of soil is expressed in terms of the soil
pH, which determines the acidity and alkalinity of the
soil.
It is the measure of the hydrogen ion concentration
in the aqueous solution of soil which ranges between
3.5 to 9.5.
chemical propperties
c. Soil salinity
Salts in the soil are transported from salt tables in
water resources that then accumulate due to
evaporation.
Salinization of soil also occurs during irrigation
processes from drainages. The salt accumulation
affects the degradation of organic matter in soil and
the vegetation on the soil
bearing capacity of soil
Geotechnical engineering defines the bearing
capacity of soil as the capacity of soil to resist
external load applied to it. In simple terms, it is the
capacity of soil to support the load without failure.
method of improving bearing capacity of soil
1.By increasing the depth of foundation.
The compactness of the foil increases as we go
below the ground level. As the bearing capacity
directly depends on the compactness of the soil, it will
go on increasing as the depth of foundation is
increased.
method of improving bearing capacity of soil
2.By draining of the sub-soil under.
Water reduces the cohe sive properties and hence
reduces the bearing capacity of the soil. By draining
off water from the sub-soil the bearing capacity of the
soil is certainly increased.
method of improving bearing capacity of soil
3.By compacting the soil.
Water reduces the If the soil is compacted
thoroughly, the voids are decreased and bearing
capacity is increased.
method of improving bearing capacity of soil
4.By confining the soil and preventing it form
spreading and lateral movement.
Spreading soils, if confined by sheet piling will resist
more leads, that is, their bearing capacity will
increase.
method of improving bearing capacity of soil
5.By increasing the width of foundation.
By grouting, the cohesive properties are increased
and the soil will be able to take up more loads.
method of improving bearing capacity of soil
6.By hardening the soil by grouting, i.e.
pumping in the cement -grout into the ground.
By increasing the width of foundations, the intensity
of load is decreased and on the same soil more loads
can be placed. (Virtually speaking the bearing
capacity of that particular area of the soil is
increased).
Soil Exploration – Purpose, Planning,
Investigation and Tests
Although information on the soil exposed at the
ground surface is very valuable, geotechnical
engineers also need to evaluate the sub-surface
conditions by taking samples by boring or by digging
exploratory pits. These activities are called subsurface
exploration.
The extent of exploration depends on the importance
of the structure, the complexity of the soil conditions
and the budget available for exploration. A detail soil
exploration programme involves deep boring, field
Purpose of soil exploration is
(i) To determine the basic properties of soil which
affect the design and safety of structure i.e.,
compressibility, strength and hydrological conditions.
(ii)
To determine the extent and properties of the
material to be used for construction.
(iii) To determine the condition of groundwater.
(iv) To analyse the causes of failure of existing
Purpose of soil Investigation
(i)Completely familiar with the kind of information
required from the investigation.
(ii)Knowledge of type, size and importance of the
project.
(iii) Preparation of layout plan of the project,
(iv) Preparation of borehole layout plan which
includes number and spacing of boreholes, depth and
Purpose of soil Investigation
(v) Selection of proper drilling and sampling
equipment.
(vi)Selection of personnel to supervise the field
investigation.
(vii) Marking on the layout plan any additional types
of soil investigation.
(viii)Preparation of guidelines for laboratory testing
Stage of Subsoil Investigation:
(i) Reconnaissance study:
(a) Geological data
(b) Serial photographs
Stage of Subsoil Investigation:
(ii) Detailed investigation:
(a) Boring
(b) Sampling
(c) Testing
Stage of Subsoil Investigation:
testing
((i) Lab test
(ii) Field test
(d) Aerial photographs
(e) Geophysical methods
Stage of Subsoil Investigation:
(iii) Performance study
(a) Further testing
(b) Instrumentation
(c) Performance evaluation
Detailed Soil Investigation:
Trial Pits:
Trial pits can be used for all types of soils. It is the cheapest way of site
exploration and do not require any specialized equipment. In this method a pit is
manually excavated and soil is inspected in the natural condition. Both disturbed
and undisturbed sample can be conveniently taken. Trial pits are suitable for
exploration of shallow depth only.
A trial pit can be defined as pits excavated at regular intervals along the
proposed pipeline installation route in order to extensively study the sub-surface
strata. These pits are also used to recover bulk soil samples where necessary
Detailed Soil Investigation:
Boring Method:
(i) Auger boring rail way ,high way
(ii) Wash boring rocky place sandy
(iii) Rotary boring rocky place
(iv) Percussion boring
Detailed Soil Investigation:
(i) Auger boring
auger is a device that advancing technology help in
bore-hole into the ground. These are used is cohesive
and other soft soil. Hand operated augers are used
up-to a maximum depth of 10 m and power driven
augers are used for greater depths.
Detailed Soil Investigation:
(i) Auger boring
Detailed Soil Investigation:
(ii) Wash boring:
It is a fast and simple method for advancing holes in
soils. In wash boring the hole is advanced to a short
depth by auger and then a casing pipe is driven in the
ground to prevent the sides of the bore hole from
caving in.
Detailed Soil Investigation:
(ii) Wash boring:
Detailed Soil Investigation:
(iii) Rotary boring:
Rotary boring is used for soil exploration work only
when deep bore holes are required in difficult
formations with boulders and fractured rock or water
logged sand. In this method a cutter bit or a core
barrel with a coring bit attached to the lower end of
drill rods is rotated by a power rig
what is test pit:
Test pits are holes dug prior to construction to help
ensure the ground conditions are suitable for building
projects. These test pits average a depth of 3-15 feet
deep, and allow geotechnical engineers the
opportunity to assess soil composition before officially
breaking ground. Using a test pit is a great way to
avoid issues and save costs — learn how to dig test
pits and more with Central Geotech
loading on foundation:
The basic requirement to be satisfied in structural
design is that the foundation must be strong enough
to support all the possible types of loads to which a
building is liable to be subjected.
Hence assessment of the design load is essentially
the step that should be taken before determining the
type of foundation
The loads coming on the foundation of a
structure can be classified into three
different categories:
1.Dead load:
This is the sum of loads comprising the self weight of
the structure, footing , foundation and load of
materials used for the various components of a
building such as walls, floors, roofs etc. All permanent
loads are included in dead loads. These loads can be
calculated by finding weights of the cubical contents
of the different materials used in the structure
The loads coming on the foundation of a
structure can be classified into three
different categories:
2.live load:
This is the movable load on the floor and hence it is
variable. It is also known as super imposed load. It
includes the load of persons standing on a floor,
weight of the materials temporarily stored on a floor,
weight on roof etc
The loads coming on the foundation of a
structure can be classified into three
different categories:
3.Wind load::
Incase of tall buildings, the effect due to wind should
be considered. The exposed sides of walls and roofs of
the buildings are subjected to wind pressure. Wind
pressure or wind loading is based on the
measurements of wind velocities and characteristics of
the structure acting as obstruction. In designing a
structure and its foundation, separate as well as
combined effect of imposed loads and wind loads are
considered.
type of shallow foundation
1.Spread or isolated footing
2.Strip footing
3.Combined footing
4.Strap or cantilever footing
5.Mat or raft foundatio
grillage foundation
type of shallow foundation
1.Spread or isolated footing
A spread footing used to provide support for an
individual column. A spread footing is rectangular,
square, or circular slab of uniform thickness.
Sometimes, it haunched or stepped to spread the load
over a large area.
type of shallow foundation
large area.
type of shallow foundation
2.strap or cantilever footing
A Strap footing consists of two isolated footings
connected with the structural strap or a lever. They
behave as one unit when the strap connects the two
footings. The strap does not take any soil reaction
because it simply acts as a connecting beam. The
Strap footing designed as a rigid beam.
type of shallow foundation
2.strap or cantilever footing
The individual footings design in such a way that
their combined line of action passes through the
results of the total load. When the distance between
the columns is large and the allowable soil pressure is
relatively high then the strap footing is more
economical than a combined footing.
type of shallow foundation
type of shallow foundation
3.strip footing
For a load-bearing wall, a strop footing provides.
This footing is also given for a row of columns that are
so closely spaced that their spread footings nearly
touch or overlap each other. In such a case, it is more
economical a strip footing than to provide a number of
spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also
called continuous footings
type of shallow foundation
type of shallow foundation
4.combine footing
Two columns supported by the combined footing.
When the two columns are so close to each other that
their individual footings would overlap than this type
of footing use.
It also provided when the property line is so close to
one column that a spread footing would be
eccentrically loaded when keep entirely within the
property by combining it with that of an interior
column. Combined footing may be trapezoidal or
type of shallow foundation
type of shallow foundation
combine footing two types
a.rectangula combine footing
The rectangular combined footings are part of
combined footings. They have rectangular shapes.
They are supporting two or more columns. These are
used when having a rectangular shape and have a
carry equal loads and its uses.
type of shallow foundation
a.rectangular combine footing
type of shallow foundation
combine footing two types
b.Trapezoidal footing
This a use for a when does not present an equal
load. When present unequal loads then use
trapezoidal combined footings. They do not have to fix
shapes and sizes. When they come unequal load from
a structure so they cannot make an equal rectangular
footing.
type of shallow foundation
b.Trapezoidal footing
type of shallow foundation
5. raft or mat foundation
A mat or raft foundation is a large slab that used to
support a number of walls and columns under the
large portion of the structure or an entire also
structure. A man needs when the allowable soil
pressure is low or where column and wall are so close
that individual footings would nearly touch or overlap
each other.
type of shallow foundation
type of shallow foundation
type of mat or raft foundation
Flat Plate type
Thickened flat plate
Beam and Slab type
Piled Raft foundations
Cellular Raft foundations
type of shallow foundation
Flat Plate type
Flate plate type is suitable when the columns are
placed with uniform spae between them and carrying
an equal and small load.
This consists of a reinforced concrete slab of uniform
thickness covering the whole bearing area.
type of shallow foundation
Thickened Flat plate type
When a column loads are very heavy then the flat
plate type is not suitable. To make it suitable, slab
thickness must be increased.
When comes a heavy loads form the column then
Introduced negative bending moments and diagonal
hear into the slab So, to resist this a portion of the
slab under the column should be thickened.
type of shallow foundation
Beam and Slab type
In this type of mat, a pedestal is provided at the
base of the column. When the purpose of this type of
foundation is the same as flat plate thickness under
the column.
type of shallow foundation
Piled foundation
This type of foundation is supported on piles. A piled
raft use when the soil at shallow depth is highly
compressible and the water table is high. Piles under
raft help in reducing setting and provided resistance
against buoyancy.
type of shallow foundation
Cellular Raft foundation
The foundation walls act as a deep beam. Rigid
frame mat referred to when columns carry extremely
heavy loads and the connecting beams exceed 90 cm
depth.
Here two concrete slabs are placed, one on top of
another and connected with foundation walls in both
directions and this from cellular raft foundations. It is
very rigid and economical when the required slab
thickness is very high.
type of shallow foundation
Advantages of raft Foundation
They are constructed for shallow depths hence, it
required less excavation.
Well suitable in the soil of low bearing capacity.
Loads coming from the superstructure are
distributed over a larger area.
Differential settlement of soil can be reduced
type of shallow foundation
6. Grillage Foundation
Grillage foundation is used when the load on the
column is very high and the bearing capacity of the
soil is low.
Deep digging can be avoided with this type of
shallow foundation.
A concrete layer of about 20 cm thickness is laid by
digging to the required depth.
type of shallow foundation
6. Grillage Foundation
two types
a.steel grillage foumdation
Steel grillage foundation is constructed of heavy
steel beams which are structurally known as rolled
steel joists (R.S.J.), provided in two or more tiers. In
the case of double tier grillage (which is commonly
provided), the top most tier of grillage beams is laid
at right angles to the bottom tier.
type of shallow foundation
type of shallow foundation
type of shallow foundation
type of shallow foundation
b.TIMBER GRILLAGE FOUNDATION.
Timber grillage foundation is provided in
case of heavily loaded timber column or
heavy load-bearing masonry wall. In this
foundation timber planks and timber
beams are used in the place of steel joists
type of shallow foundation
foundation masonary
Masonry foundation may be constructed from
concrete block or brick masonry units. The
concrete block masonry foundation is
commonly used as it is cost effective and its
unattractive appearance would not be visible.
The masonry foundation should be able to
adequately support weight of the structure and
foundation masonary
Following are the different types of masonry
foundations used in building construction:
Masonry strip foundation
Masonry spread (isolated) footing
Stepped masonry footing
Masonry inverted arch foundation
construction seps/construction detail
1. Foundation Layout
2. Excavation
3. Filled up Soil
4. Excavation Trenches/Pits
5. Anti-termite Treatment
6. Foundation Construction
7. Curing of Foundation
8. Starting the Curing Process
