BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION (P18CV32)
UNIT -II
Foundation: Preliminary investigation of soil, bearing capacity of soil, safe bearing capacity of
soil, methods of determining bearing capacity, methods of improving bearing capacity.
classification of foundations, introduction to different types of foundations, masonry footings -
basic numerical problems, isolated footings, combined and strap RCC footings, raft footing,
foundation in black cotton soil (or expansive soil). 10Hrs.
Self study component: The students shall visit construction sites and learn to identify different
types of foundations and details of super structures.
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Introduction
A building has two basic parts:
1) Sub structure or foundations
2) Super-structure.
A foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the
loads are transmitted.
Super- structure is that part of the structure which is above ground level.
Preliminary Investigation of Soil
It is very important to get the information about the physical properties and the arrangements of
the underlying materials for design and construction of the structure. The important information
which can be gathered during the inspection is as follows.
1) Weather the ground is soft, hard, marshy, water logged
2) Visual examination of the soil
3) Behaviour of ground water changes/level and rainwater movement
4) Damage of the foundation due to sulphate in the subsoil level
Subsoil exploration is done for the following purpose:
1) The soil conditions at different depths
2) Location of water table and its seasonal variation
3) The depth of rocks
4) The determination of bearing capacity of the selected foundation
5) The provision against constructional difficulties
6) Behaviour of soil with respect to settlement cracks if any on exterior walls should also be
observed.
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Functions of Foundation
1) Reduction of load intensity: Foundations distribute the loads of the Super-structure to a
larger area So that the intensity of the load at its base does not exceed the safe bearing
capacity of the Sub-soil.
2) Even distribution of load: Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the Super
structure evenly to sub-soil.
3) Provision of level surface: It provides leveled and hard surface over which the super
structure can be built.
4) Lateral stability: It anchors the super-structure of the ground, thus imparting lateral stability
to the super-structure.
5) Safety against undermining: It provides the structural safety against undermining or
scouring due to burrowing animals and flood water.
6) Protection against soil movements: Special foundation measures prevent or minimize the
distress (or cracks) in the super-structure due to expansion or contraction of the sub-soil
because of movement in some soil like black cotton soil
Requirements of good Foundation
1) The foundation shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit
these to the sub-soil.
2) Foundation base be rigid so that differential settlements are minimized Foundation should be
taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage caused by swelling or shrinking
of sub-soil.
3) Foundation should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage caused by
swelling or shrinking of sub-soil.
4) Foundation should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influence.
Bearing Capacity of Soil
A foundation should be designed to satisfy two essential conditions:
1) It must have some specified safety against ultimate failure.
2) The settlements under working loads should not exceed the allowable limits of the super
structure.
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The bearing capacity of the soils used for the design of foundations is determined on the basis of
the above two criteria.
The maximum pressure which the soil can carry safely without risk of shear failure is known as
safe bearing capacity of the soil
The load of the structure is finally transmits on to the soil and hence it is important to know the
strength and behaviour of the soil. Soils when stressed due to loading tend to deform.
Bearing capacity of soil is defined as the maximum load per unit area which the soil resists
safely without displacement or deform.
The settlement due to load is caused due to two factors – (i) soil gets compressed (ii) The
foundation cover limited area and some concentrated stresses causes rupture/shear failure leading
to displacement and soil.
The ultimate bearing capacity of soil is defined as the loading intensity which causes soil
rupture and lateral displacement resulting in rapid sinking of the loaded area into the ground.
The term Allowable bearing pressure of soil is used to indicate the maximum pressure which
can be exerted on a soil while taking into account shear failure, settlement and the ability of
structure to resist settlement.
Safe Bearing Capacity of Soil
The safe bearing capacity of the soil is the maximum intensity of loading that soil will safely
carry without risk of shear failure. This is obtained by dividing the ultimate bearing capacity by a
certain factor of safety and it is the value which is used in the design of foundation. The factor of
safety normally varies from 2-3.
Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity
1) Plate load test
a) A steel plate of suitable sizes (300x300mm gravel and dense soil and 600x600mm for loose
and medium soil) with a thickness of 25 mm
b) A square pit of required size is excavated which is 5 times the sides of steel plate, but at the
centre of pit, size of pit should be equal to steel plate
c) Bottom of the hole should correspond to proposed foundation level
d) Steel plate is placed in the hole and timber baulk slightly less than the size of plate of length
1.2 m long is held axially
e) A loading platform is constructed, which contains rolled steel joist and sand bags
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f) Wooden pegs are driven to see difference in level while loading
g) The bottom of the hole is made level by scraping and it is well-protected against disturbing
forces before and during the test.
h) The steel plate is put up in the hole and then the platform is prepared as shown in the fig.
i) The amount of initial load is decided according to the type of soil to be tested.
j) A dumpy level is planted to note the settling of the steel plate with reference to a permanent
bench mark.
k) The load is be placed on the platform till the settlement of the ground stops.
l) Test load is increased by 5 kN and continued till the platform makes the ground level and
sudden sinks of baulk
m) Load and settlement are plotted graphically and the max load (W), which the soil can resist is
determined.
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Maxload (inKN ) W
Bearing capacity of soil in kN/m2 = =
Areaofplate(m 2) A
Bearingcap acityofsoil
Safe bearing capacity of soil in kN/m2 = p =
Factorofsafety
Factor may be 2 for most of the buildings and 2.5-3 for heavy buildings.
2) By dropping a weight
A square pit of 2 x 2 m is excavated up to a proposed foundation level structure
A substance - steel rod of known weight is dropped vertically under its own weight with known
height
Penetration made by the substance is noticed
Bearing capacity of soil is determined by law of conservation of energy
W = wt. of the substance
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h = height of fall
R = Resistance of the soil
d = Depth of impression / penetration
According to law of conservation of energy R x d = W x h
Ultimate Resistance R = W x h / d
If A is the cross section of area of substance then
Ultimate bearing capacity of soil = R/A and
Safe bearing capacity of soil p = R/A x f
Methods of Improving Bearing Capacity
Sometimes the required SBC of the soil is not available at shallow depth or it is so low. In such
cases the following methods are adopted to increase SBC of soil.
1) Increasing the depth of foundation
2) Compacting soil
3) Drainage of soil
4) Sheet piles
5) Sand piles
6) Grouting
7) Chemical treatment
8) Use of geo-synthetics
1) Increasing the depth of foundation
For granular soil, the BC increases with the depth due to confining weight of overlying
material. This method is not economical because the cost of construction increases with depth.
2) Compacting soil
In this method the depth of foundation is increased by about 450 mm or less and a layer of
rubble is spread over the bottom of foundation and it is well-rammed. At the end of this
process it is found to have increased SBC of soil.
3) Drainage of soil
The presence of water decreases the bearing power of soil. Therefore suitable drains should be
provided in the foundation trench to drain off excess of water.
4) Sheet piles
The movement of soil under the action of load can be prevented by confining the ground
using sheet piles. This result in bearing capacity of soil.
5) Sand piles
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The construction of sand piles proves to be very useful in case of sandy soil or soft soil.
6) Grouting
The bore-holes in sufficient number are driven in the ground. The cement grout is then
forced under prsessure through these bore-holes. The cracks of fissures of the rocks are thus
filled up, resulting in the increase of bearing power of soil.
7) Chemical treatment
In this treatment, certain chemicals which can solidify and gain early strength are used in
place of cement grout to solidify the soil. But as this process is costly
8) Use of geo-synthetics
Geo-synthetics are used as reinforcing element for improving the ground condition. The BC
of the weak soils can be improved by 300% by using appropriate geo-synthetic material.
The various types of geo-synthetics are:
a) Geo-textiles
b) Geo-grids
c) Geo-cells
d) Geo-others.
The above materials, when reinforced in weak soils enhances its shearing resistance and the
confining soil pressure are greatly increased. Now a days, geo-drains are available in india
and has an excellent characteristics of dissipating pore water pressure leading to enhanced
mechanical characteristics of soil mass.
Classification of Foundations
The selection of the foundation for a particular site depends on the following consideration:
a) Nature of subsoil
b) Nature and extent of difficulties (presence of boulders, buried tree trunks etc)
c) Availability of expertise and equipments.
Introduction to Different Types of Foundations
Depending upon their nature and depth, foundations may be broadly classified into 2 types;
1) Shallow / open Foundations
2) Deep Foundations.
According to Terzaghi, A foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width.
Foundation is said to be deep if its depth is greater than its width.
1) Shallow Foundation
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It is a type of foundation provided for structure of moderate height on dry ground and the depth
is not more than 1.5 m. When the depth of the foundation is equal to or less than 1.5 times the
width of foundation it is known as shallow foundation. The base of the structure is enlarged or
spread to provide individual support.
The different types of footings are:
a) Spread footings
b) Grillage footing
c) Eccentrically loaded footing
d) Combined footings
e) Strap footings
f) Mat / raft footings
2) Deep Foundations
These foundations carry loads from a structure through weak compressible soils or fills on to the
stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth. In practice, the excavation beyond a depth
of 1.5 mts generally treated as the deep excavation. There are two conditions to be satisfied.
a) Prevention of collapsing of sides of the trench
b) Prevention of water coming out from the sides / bottom of the trench.
Following are the deep foundation types:
1) Pile foundation
2) Pier foundation / drilled caisson
3) Well foundation or Caisson
Spread Footing
Here the footings spread the super imposed load of wall or column over a large area. It supports
either a column or wall. The width of the footing should be sufficient to sustain the
superimposed load of the structure and the depth should be sufficient to resist the yielding of the
soil.
It may be of the following types:
a) Single footing for a column
b) Stepped footing for a column
c) Sloped footing for a column
d) Wall footing without step
e) Stepped footing for wall
f) Grillage foundation
a) Single footing or pad footing for a column size through a single spread. The base is generally
concrete for all types of spread footings.
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b) Stepped footing is used for a heavily loaded column which requires greater spread
c) Sloped footing has concrete base which does not have uniform thickness but it is made sloped
with greater thickness at its junction with the column and smaller thickness at the ends.
Fig (a) shows spread footing for a wall, consisting of concrete base without any steps
Usually masonry walls have stepped footings as shown in fig (b) with concrete base.
Grillage Footing
It is special type of isolated footing.
This type is used to transmit heavy loads from steel columns to the soils bearing low bearing
power and this avoids deep excavation and often lighter and more economical.
The depth of foundation is limited to 1 to 1.5 m.
The load is spread to very large area by means of 2 or more tiers of rolled steel joints and the
tiers are embedded in cement concrete to keep the joists in position and to prevent corrosion.
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They are made up of grillage beams (Timber/Steel) provided in single/double tiers.
The steel/Timber beams are suitably spaced (8 cm distances) so as to provide facility for the
placing and rodding of concrete between them.
Depending upon the material used in construction, grillage foundation can be further divided
into:
a) Steel grillage
b) Timber grillage
Fig shows grillage foundation for a steel sanction carrying heavy load.
Eccentrically Loaded Footing
Normally the foundations should be proportional that the centre of gravity of the imposed load
coincide with the supporting area of base. Sometimes it may happed that the column / walls are
to be placed close to property lines and required supporting area of the base cannot be placed
concentrically with the imposed loads without overlapping the property liens. Hence, the
column/wall foundations are to constructed without encroaching the area outside the boundary
line of the building.
Here, the imposed load acting on one side of the centre of footing, loads the supporting area
unequally. The width of footing is so shaped that the load falls within the middle third of the
base. This is called Offsetting the footing.
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Combined Footings
A spread footing which supports 2 or more columns is termed as combined footing.
It is classified as:
a) Rectangular combined footings
b) Trapezoidal combined footings
c) Combined column wall footings
It will be in rectangular shape if they carry equal loads.
The design of rigid rectangular combined footing should be done in such a way that centre of
gravity of column loads coincide with centroid of footing area.
It will be trapezoidal if the columns carry unequal loads.
Sometimes combined footing is provided to both column and a wall.
A spread footing which supports 2 or more columns is termed as combined footing. If it supports
more than two columns, then it is called continuous footing. Combined footing is provided when
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the bearing capacity of the soil is less. If columns are very near to each other and if the end
column is near to property boundary so that its footing cannot spread in that direction.
Combined footing can be rectangular in shape if both the columns carry equal loads or can be
trapezoidal if there are space limitations and they carry unequal loads.
The objective of combined footing is to get uniform pressure distribution under the footing.
Therefore the center of gravity of the footing area should coincide with the center of gravity of
the combined loads of the two columns.
Combined rectangular footing may be either reinforced cement concrete or of grillage type.
Similarly combined Trapezoidal footing may be either of RCC or of steel grillage.
Continuous footing: Here continuous RC slab is provided as foundation for more than two
columns in a row. This type of footing helps in avoiding differential settlement in the structure
and suitable in earthquake prone areas.
Strap Footings
Strap footing comprises of two or more footings of individual columns connected by a beam,
called strap. The strap beam connecting the spread footings of the columns does not remain in
contact with the soil, so a strap does not transfer any pressure to the soil.
This type of footing is used where the distance between the columns is large. The strap assumed
to be indefinitely rigid, serves to transfer the column loads on to the soil with equal and uniform
soil pressure under both footings.
If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called strap footing
It is required where the distance between the columns are great so that combined trapezoidal
footings become quite narrow with high bending moments.
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Each column is provided with independent footings and a beam is used to connect the two
footings
The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil and thus does not transfer any pressure to the
soil
The strap is assumed to be stiff and transfer the column loads to the soil with equal and uniform
pressure.
Raft Footing (Mat Footing)
A raft or mat type of footing is provided when the ground is having soft clay or where the soil
having low bearing capacity or the structure is liable to subsidence due to uncertain subsoil water
condition.
It is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all the
columns.
A true raft or mat is a flat concrete slab with uniform thickness throughout the area. This footing
is constructed when the column spacing is small and column loads are also relatively small.
However, if the column spacing is large/loads are heavy, thickened bands are provided along the
column lines.
The raft foundations are useful for public buildings office/school buildings quarters etc.
The raft slab generally projects for a distance of 30-45 cm on all the sides of the outer walls of
the structure and as such the area of excavation is slightly more than the area of the structure
itself. The required excavated area, when dried provides the base upon the mat is laid.
In a made up ground or soft soil or marshy ground having low value of bearing capacity big
structures or heavy loads are generally supported by raft foundation
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If the structure is liable to subsidence due to uncertain behaviour of sub soil then mat foundation
should be used
It is economical compared to pile foundation
It consist of thick reinforced concrete slab covering entire area of the bottom of the structure like
a floor
The slab is reinforced with bars at right angles to each other, if necessary they will be supported
with main and secondary beams
Foundation in Black Cotton Soil (or Expansive Soil)
The property of volumetric changes with the change of atmospheric conditions makes black
cotton soil dangerous to be founded buildings. It swells excessively when wet and shrinks
excessively when dry resulting terrible cracks in soil without any warning. It has a great affinity
to water. This tendency of soil is on account of the presence of fine clay particles. Cracks are
formed due to movement of the ground on account of alternate swelling and shrinkage. The
cracks thus formed are sometimes 15 to 20 cm wide and 2.5 to 4 m deep.
Difficulties encountered while providing foundation
1) Black cotton soil is very treacherous / deceptive (unreliable)
2) It becomes very soft when water enters
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3) It has very low bearing capacity
4) It swells when confined between walls
5) It shrinks and swells with the change of moisture
6) In dry weather, it shrinks due to escape of water forming cracks
Precautions to be taken for securing safe foundation on black cotton soil
1) The load is limited to 50-100 kN/sq.mt (Safe bearing capacity).
2) Foundation to be taken to such a depth that cracks donot extend.
3) A layer of sand or such material should be placed between the concrete or masonry in the
foundation.
4) Concrete should be reinforced to take tensile stresses.
5) Construction in black cotton soil should be undertaken during dry season.
Method of laying foundation on black cotton soil
1) Excavation of black cotton soil and providing foundation on hard strata
2) By providing pile foundation
3) By providing grillage foundation
4) By providing raft foundation
5) By providing shallow foundation on sand pillow
Under-reamed Pile Foundation
Under-reamed piles are bored cast-in-situ concrete piles having bulk shaped enlargement near
base. These piles are commonly recommended for providing safe and economical foundations in
expansive soils such as black cotton soil, filled up ground and other types of soils having poor
bearing capacity. In these type of foundation the structure is anchored to the ground at a depth
where ground movement due to changes in moisture content negligible. A pile having one bulk is
known as single under-reamed pile. It is seen that the load bearing capacity of the pile can be
increased by increasing the number of bulk at the base. In such a case the pile is named as multi-
under-reamed pile. The increase in the bearing capacity of the pile can also be achieved by
increasing the diameter and the length of the pile.
Deep Foundation
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These foundations carry loads from a structure through weak compressible soils or fills on to the
stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth. In practice, the excavation beyond a depth
of 1.5 m generally treated as the deep excavation.
There are two conditions to be satisfied:
a) Prevention of collapsing of sides of the trench.
b) Prevention of water coming out from the sides / bottom of the trench.
Following are the deep foundation types
1) Pile foundation
2) Pier foundation / drilled caisson
3) Well foundation or Caisson
Pile Foundation
Pile is an element of construction placed in the ground either vertically or slightly inclined to
increase the load bearing capacity of the soil.
The construction is from timber, concrete or steel.
Pile foundation is used when spread foundation at some depth is not possible because of the
stratum of required bearing capacity is at greater depth or steep slopes are encountered.
They are mainly used for foundation for building, bridges and water front installations.
Piles are broadly classified on following criteria
1) Based on function
2) Based on materials
1) Classification based on the function
a) Bearing piles
b) Friction piles
c) Compaction piles
d) Anchor piles
e) Fender piles
f) Batter piles
g) Sheet piles
2) Classification based on material / composition
Following are the most commonly used material
a) Timber piles
b) Cement concrete piles
c) Steel piles
Bearing or End Bearing Piles
These piles penetrate through the soft soil and their bottoms tips rest on a hard stratum. The end
bearing piles acts as column. The soft ground which the pile passes also gives some lateral
support and this increase the load bearing capacity of bearing pile. They are used to transfer the
loads through water / soft soil.
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Frictional Pile
When loose soil extends to a great depth, piles are driven upto such a depth that frictional
resistance developed at the sides of piles equals the load coming on the piles. Frictional
resistance of the soil is carefully determined. They are used to transfer loads to a great depth at a
friction load carrying material by means of skin friction (friction developed by surrounding
ground) along the length of the piles.
Total frictional resistance can be increased by:
a) Increasing dia of pipe
b) Driving piles to greater depth
c) Making surface of piles rough
d) Placing piles closely
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