12th Grade

RNA
TRANSCRIPTIO
N
& tRANSLATION
DNA in Biology
 Table of contents

01 STRUCTURE
OF RNA 02 TYPES OF RNA

TRANSCRIPTIO
03 N 04 TRANSLATION
 01
STRUCTURE

OF RNA
What is rNA?
RNA is central to the synthesis of proteins. Here, a
type of RNA called messenger RNA carries
information from DNA to structures called ribosomes.
These ribosomes are made from proteins and
ribosomal RNAs, which come together to form a
molecular machine that can read messenger RNAs and
translate the information they carry into proteins.
There are many RNAs with other roles – in particular
regulating which genes are expressed, but also as the
genomes of most viruses.
Characteristics of RNA
⮚ Most cellular RNA is single-stranded, although
some viruses have double stranded RNA.

⮚ RNA nucleotides differ from DNA in having

ribose as the sugar instead of deoxyribose.

⮚ RNA had the base uracil rather than thymine that

is present in DNA.
Chemical Structure of rNA
TYPES OF
RNA
02
 Messenger RNA (mrna)
● Consisting of thousands of mononucleotides.
mRNA is a long strand which is arranged in a
single helix.
● Once formed, mRNA leaves the nucleus via
pores in the nuclear envelope and enters the
cytoplasm, where it associates with the
ribosomes.
● There it acts as a template upon which proteins
are built. Its structure is suited for this function
because it possesses the correct sequence of
many triplets of organic bases that code for
specific polypeptides.
 Ribosomal RNA (rrna)

● Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a large, complex molecule

which is a major component of ribosomes, making up
over half of their mass.
● Ribosomes exist as two associated subunits. They have a
large subunit and a small subunit. ‘S’ stands for Svedberg
unit, which measures sedimentation rate and not size.
● When ribosomes become attached to mRNA, the complex
is called polysome. The mRNA acts as a template for the
ribosomes to synthesize protein. One of the functions of
rRNA is to bind the ribosome to mRNA.
 Transfer RNA (trna)
● Transfer RNA is a relatively small molecule which
is made up of around 80 nucleotides.
● There are different types of tRNA, but they are
very similar, each having a single-stranded chain
folded into a clover-leaf shape, with one end of the
chain extending beyond the other.
● This extended chain always has the organic base
sequence of cytosine-cytosine-adenine; this is the
part of the tRNA molecule to which amino acids
can easily attach. There are at least 20 types of
tRNA, each able to carry a different amino acid.
Transfer RNA (trna)
● At the opposite end of the tRNA molecule is a sequence
of three other organic bases known as the anticodon.
● For each amino acid there is a different sequence of
organic bases on the anticodon.
● During protein synthesis, this anticodon pairs with the
complementary three organic bases that make up the
triplet of bases on mRNA (codon).
● Wobble pairing lets the same tRNA recognize multiple
codons for the amino acid it carries.
● For example, the tRNA for phenylalanine has an
anticodon of 3'-AAG-5'. It can pair with an mRNA
codon of either 5'-UUC-3' or 5'-UUU-3' (both of which
are codons that specify phenylalanine).
 03
Transcription
 Introduction
• Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA using instructions from
DNA. The DNA strand that gives instructions is called the temple
strand. During transcription, the genes on the template strand
determine the sequence of bases in the mRNA.
• The mRNA is complementary to the DNA template strand, but it
contains the base uracil instead of thymine, and the nucleotides
contain ribose instead of deoxyribose.
• The mRNA is synthesized in an antiparallel direction to the DNA
template strand.
• For eg:
3’ CAG 5’ codes for 5’ CUG 3’ mRNA
TRANSCRIPTION
[Formation of m RNA]

• This is the process where the base sequence of a section of DNA

which represents a gene is converted into what is called
complementary base sequence of m RNA.
• Here a specific region of the DNA molecule, which is called
cistron unwinds. • It is able to unwind as an enzyme called
helicase breaks the hydrogen bond between the base pair in the
DNA double helix.
• This bond is broken as the enzyme recognizes the start sequence
in the DNA coding strand at the beginning of the gene and
become attached to the DNA breaking the bond.
THE PROCESS
 transcription

● As the DNA molecule unwinds, the bases

along each strand become exposed.
● • One of the two strands will now act as a
template.
● • Each free base in the template will now
attract its complementary RNA nucleotide.
● • For example DNA attracts RNA, G attracts
C, C attracts G, A attracts U and T attracts A
 transcription
● During this time, the Enzyme [RNA
polymerase] will move along the DNA
where it does the addition of the RNA
nucleotides to the DNA bases.
● • After the desired number of m RNA
molecules have been formed, the
enzyme [RNA polymerase] will leave
from out of the DNA .
● • It leaves because it recognizes a stop
sequence.
transcription
● As soon as it has left, the DNA will close up since there is
nothing to keep it open and the double helix is reformed.
● The m RNA molecule that has been formed is now
released.
● It tries to diffuse across the nuclear envelope but it is too
large to do so.
● It travels through the nuclear pore and go to the
cytoplasm.
 Summary
⮚ The enzyme DNA helicase acts on a specific region of DNA
molecule called a cistron to break the hydrogen bonds between the
bases, causing the two strands to separate and expose the nucleotide
bases in that region.

⮚ The enzyme RNA polymerase moves along one of the two DNA
strands known as the template strand, causing the bases on this
strand to join with the individual complementary nucleotides from
the pool which is present in the nucleus.

⮚ In this way an exposed guanine base is linked to the cytosine base of

a free nucleotide. Similarly, cytosine links to guanine, and thymine
joins to adenine. The exception is adenine, which links to uracil
rather than thymine.
 summary
⮚ As the RNA polymerase adds the nucleotides
one at a time, to build a strand of pre-mRNA,
so the DNA strands rejoin behind it. As a
result, only around 1 base pairs on the DNA
are exposed at any one time.

⮚ When the RNA polymerase reaches a

particular sequence of bases on the DNA
which it recognizes as a ‘stop’ code, it
detaches, and the production of pre-mRNA is
then complete.
 Processing of pre-
messenger RNA (pre-
mRNA)
SPLICING
⮚ A guanine nucleotide is added to one end of the pre-
mRNA as a cap. This ‘cap’ is used to set off the
process of translation when mRNA reaches a
ribosome.

⮚ Around 100 adenine nucleotides are added to the

other end of the pre-mRNA as a tail. It is thought
that this ‘tail’ may prevent the breakdown of the
mRNA in the cytoplasm by nucleases because
mRNA without a ‘tail’ is rapidly destroyed.

⮚ DNA is made up of sections called exons that code

for proteins and sections called introns that do not.
These intervening introns would interfere with the
synthesis of a polypeptide.
⮚ In the pre-mRNA of eukaryotic cells, these
intervening non-functioning introns are removed
and the functional exons are joined together in a
process called splicing.
THE END PRODUCT
 04

TRANSLATIO
N
 —Introduction

“Translation is the process by which the messenger RNA

from the nucleus of a cell forms a polypeptide, in
accordance with the sequence of nucleotide bases along its
length. The process begins with the activation of the amino
acids which will make up the polypeptide.”
 translation
• It takes place on the ribosomes and it is the mechanism by which
the sequence of bases in a mRNA is converted into a sequence of
amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
• It begins with several ribosomes attaching themselves to a
molecule of mRNA [which is a long string] like beads on a
string.
• The entire structure is called a polyribosome [polysome].
• Each ribosome consists of two parts:
• A) a small subunit
• B) a large subunit
 translation
• Outlined on the mRNA held by the ribosome are the line of
bases.
• These bases were copied from the DNA Helix.
• All these bases are actually complementary [RNA style to the
DNA molecule].
• This set of RNA bases can be placed in groups of three according
to where they lie in the line (codon).
• For each group of three, there is a tRNA with its anticodon
having the same three bases but in their complementary form.
• Example, if on the mRNA it is AUG then on the tRNA anticodon
section it is UAC.
 translation

• If on the mRNA it is GUA then on the tRNA’s anticodon section it

is CAU.
• Each aminoactyl tRNA with its three anticodons also has 1 of the
20 known amino acids attached to it. ▪ This means that this
aminoactyl tRNA wishes that the amino acid attached to it is made.
• NB: The mRNA carries the codon while the aminoactyl tRNA
carries the anticodon.
• The aminoactyl tRNA which has an anticodon which matches the
codon of the first bases of mRNA will now be taken by the
ribosome and the anticodon section now joins to the codon section.
 translation

• This means that the first amino acid which is usually methionine is
now laid down. This the first amino acid of the polypeptide chain.
The second codon of the RNA string will attach its aminoactyl –
tRNA.
• The anticodon section of the aminoactyl- t RNA will join to the
codon section of the mRNA.
• The amino acid of the first aminoactyl-RNA [methionine] and the
amino acid of the second aminoactyl-t RNA will be held close to
each other by the ribosomes.
 translation
Here the ribosome will continue holding the m RNA, the t RNA and the
enzymes which are responsible for the processes to occur until a peptide bond is
formed between the two amino acids.

As soon as the bond is formed, the following will occur:

1. The ribosome moves down to another mRNA codon.
2. The tRNA which was attached to the polypeptide chain [minus its amino
acid] will now leave from out of the Ribosome and go back to the cytoplasm so
that it can be reconverted to another aminoacyl tRNA molecule. [It will link
with its specific amino acid].

The process will continue where a third amino acid is formed and then a fourth,
etc
 translation

• This means that the polypeptide chain is formed by one amino

acid at a time. ▪ The amino acid linking will come to an end when
the ribosome reaches a nonsense code like UAA,UAG or UGA.
• These codes signal the Ribose to stop. The polypeptide is now
cast off [stop forming].
• Next, the polypeptide chain with its primary structures as was
dictated by the DNA will leave from out of the Ribosome and
that is the end of translation.
 translation

• On leaving the ribosome, polypeptide chain may assume either

secondary, tertiary or quaternary structure.
• If the ribosome is attached to ER [rough ER of course] then the
protein will enter the ER so that it can be transported.
• Here the first part of the group chain of amino acids has a ‘signal
sequence’ of amino acids which fits a specific receptor in the ER
membrane hence binding the ribosome to the ER.
• After the protein passes through the receptor into the ER, the
signal sequence is removed and protein folds into its final shape
 Amino acid activation
• Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases are responsible for the
attachment of 1 of the 20 amino acids to the tRNA that has
the correct anticodon specified in the genetic code.

• When the amino acid is attached to its correct tRNA, the

tRNA recognizes the correct codon on the mRNA via its
anticodon loop.
• This process occurs on the ribosomes, which coordinate the
events of protein synthesis.
Amino Acid
Activation
The amino acids present in cells must first be
activated before they can be assembled into a
polypeptide. This occurs in two stages:

• The amino acid first forms an intermediate

with ATP, which provides the energy for the
next stage.
• The intermediate then combines with
transfer RNA to form an amino acid –tRNA
complex called amino-acyl tRNA. The
reaction is controlled by the enzyme, amino-
acyl tRNA synthetase.
 AMINO ACID ACTIVATION
• Thisis the process by which amino acids combine with
RNA with the help of energy from ATP.
What happens next is that each type of tRNA will now
bind with a specific amino acid?
• Each tRNA is different from the others in terms of their
composition of a triplet of bases which are known as anti
codon.
All tRNA is similar to the next since they all have a free end
which terminates in the triplet CCA.
• This free end is the point to which the individual amino
acids are now attached.
• The tRNA molecules with their amino acid intact now
travel towards the Ribosomes.
About the
Method
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 Starting polypeptide construction
• A ribosome becomes attached to one end of the mRNA molecule.
• The starting point on the mRNA is normally the triplet of bases
(codon), AUG.
• The amino-acyl tRNA molecule with the anticodon sequence of UAC
moves to the ribosome and pairs up with the AUG sequence on the
mRNA.
• As the tRNA which pairs with the AUG sequence on the mRNA
always carries the amino acid methionine, polypeptides initially have
methionine as the first amino acid.
• However, if this methionine molecule does not makeup part of the
finished polypeptide, it is removed at the end of the synthesis.
 Making the Polypeptide
• The ribosome moves along the mRNA, bringing together two
tRNA molecules at any one time, each pairring up with the
corresponding two codons on the mRNA.
• By means of an enzyme, the two amino acids on the tRNA are
joined by a peptide bond.
• The ribosome moves on to the third codon in the sequence on
the mRNA, thereby linking the amino acids on the second and
third tRNA molecules.
• As this happens, the first tRNA is released from its amino acid
and is free to collect another methionine molecule from the
amino acid pool in the cell.
 Making the Polypeptide
• The process continues in this way, with up to 15 amino acids being linked each
second, until a complete polypeptide chain is built up.
• Up to 50 ribosomes can pass immediately behind the first, so that many
identical polypeptides can be assembled simultaneously. A group of ribosomes
acting in this way is kniwn as a polysome.
• The process continues until the ribosome reaches a stop (nonsense) codon.
These are UGA, UAG, and UAA, and do not attract a tRNA. At this point,
therefore, the ribosome, mRNA and the last tRNA molecule all separate and the
polypeptide chain is complete.
 Assembling the protein
Sometimes a single chain is a functional
protein. Often, a number of polypeptides are
linked to give a functional protein
(Quaternary structure). What happens to the
polypeptide next depends upon the protein
being made, but usually involves the
following:

● The polypeptide is made into its

secondary structure by being either coiled
into an α –helix or folded into a β-pleated
sheet.
● The secondary structure is folded into its
tertiary structure.
● Different polypeptide chains are linked to
form the quaternary structure, along with
associated (non-protein) prosthetic
groups.