Electricity and

Magnetism
Section 4 of the CSEC syllabus
General objectives
On completion of this Section, students should:

1. understand electrostatic phenomena;

2. understand the ways in which electricity is conducted;

3. understand electrical quantities and the relations between them;

4. have a working knowledge of electrical circuits and components;

5. be aware of the applications of electronics in technology;

6. understand the simple phenomena associated with magnets;

7. have a working knowledge of electromagnetic phenomena.

 Electrostatics
1. 1 explain the charging of objects;
1. 2 describe the forces that electric charges exert on each other;
1. 3 explain charging by induction;
1. 4 define an electric field;
1. 5 describe one hazard and one useful application of static charge.
What are the three subatomic particles?

Protons (+ charge)
Electrons (- charge)
Neutrons (no Charge)
If you had two of those
charged atoms in your hand
what would happen?

If they are the same charge.They

would push each other away;
repel each other.

If they are different charges.

They would pull each other
together; attract each other.
Using friction to have some fun!

The rubbing together of two objects, causes

an imbalance of electrons by transferring
electrons from one object to another.

The buildup of electric charge on an object.

This causes an imbalance of charges in the
objects.

Have a try! Charge the comb by friction, then

use it to attract the bits of paper.
 Click the link below, to enter the static electricity simulator
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/balloons-and-static-electricity/latest/balloons-and-static-electricity_en.html
 Induction
Induction charging is a method used to charge an object without actually
touching the object to any other charged object.
Charging by induction
Electric Discharge

The sudden flow of electrons is called

electric discharge.

When the positively charged hand

comes in contact with the metal door
knob, the electrons suddenly flow from
the door knob to the hand. The
discharge of electrons produces the
shock felt feel. A spark can also be
formed.
What weather phenomenon involves electric discharge?

⚡Lightning ⚡

Lightning is a product of static electricity and electric

discharge and it tends to hit tall objects making trees
likely targets.

Trees are especially prone to lightning strikes

because electricity seeks the path of least resistance,
and the sap and moisture inside a tree make it a
better conductor than the surrounding air.
How is lightning formed?

Lightning occurs when the negative

charges (electrons) in the bottom of the
cloud are attracted to the positive charges
(protons) in the ground.

The stream of electrons extend down to

the ground and the protons extend up from
the ground and when they touch an
explosion occurs. The light produced is
lightning and the sound of the explosion is
called thunder.
Grounding
Grounding is the process of removing the excess charge on an object by means of
the transfer of electrons between it and another object of substantial size. When a
charged object is grounded, the excess charge is balanced by the transfer of
electrons between the charged object and a ground.
 Application of static charges
Spray Painting
The gun gives the paint a charge opposite to the
object that is being painted. This allows the
paint to become attracted the object. Since the
paint is attracted to the object, there is less
waste of paint, and more even coverage on the
object.

Photocopier
(Inkjet printer)
Electric Field

An electric field is defined as a region in which an electric charge will experience a

force. A single point charge has a radial field pattern. The field lines of force are
directed away from a positive charge and towards a negative charge. The
closeness of the field lines also gives an indication of the strength of the electric
field at that point.
Questions

What is one way that static electricity can be hazardous?

● While fueling a plane | lightning

What is the way to protect a building against lightning strikes?

● Using a lightning rod

What is the way to protect against an explosion whilst fueling a plane?

● Using a grounding cable
Questions

How does lightning occur?

● When the negative particles extend down to the grounds positive particles
and connect.

What are some useful applications of static electricity?

● Photocopying, spray painting and crop spraying.
Static discharge Sim

Charges and Fields 1.0.50

CSEC Questions
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
2.1 distinguish between conductors and insulators;
2.2 state that an electric current in a metal consists of a flow of electrons;
2.3 differentiate between electron flow and conventional current;
2.4 state the unit of electrical current;
2.5 apply the relationship Q = It;
2.6 differentiate between direct and alternating currents;
2.7 analyse current-time or voltage-time graphs.
Darwin Awards
Thomas licked his fingers A live Electrical wire Esther saw the pair of
and grabbed the pair of wires and Called Mr.
wires. Fearon.

Darwin Award No Darwin Award

Paul touched both ends Mr. Fearon came Over

of the pair of wires to a and placed rubber caps
metal fork he had in his over each of the exposed
hand. Darwin awards are given to: wires.
individuals who have supposedly
Darwin Award contributed to human evolution by No Darwin Award
selecting themselves out of the gene
pool by dying or becoming sterilized
via their own actions.
Conductors and insulators
Electrical conductors are the materials or
substances in which the electrons, electrical
charge carriers, are abundantly available.

An electrical insulator is a material in which

electric current does not flow freely.

Fun Fact : pure water isn’t a good conductor

of electricity, but add a little salt and you
would be in for a shocking time.
Electric Current

An electric current is a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions,

moving through an electrical conductor or space. The SI unit of electric current is
the ampere.

Conventional Current assumes that current flows out of the positive terminal,
through the circuit and into the negative terminal of the source.

Electron Flow is what actually happens and electrons flow out of the negative
terminal, through the circuit and into the positive terminal of the source.
Conventional Current VS Electron flow
Because we tend to associate the word “positive”
Others chose to designate charge flow
with “surplus” and “negative” with “deficiency,” the
according to the actual motion of electrons in
standard label for electron charge does seem a circuit. This form of symbology became
backward. Because of this, many engineers decided known as electron flow notation:
to retain the old concept of electricity with “positive”
referring to a surplus of charge, and label charge flow
(current) accordingly. This became known as
conventional flow notation:
Current flow sim

Circuit Construction Kit: AC

The Ampere, A

One Ampere of current represents one Coulomb of electrical charge moving past a
specific point in one second.

Q=It

Q = unit charge measured in coulombs ‘C’

I = the electric current measured in Amperes ‘A’

t = the time measured in seconds ‘s’

Hence; 1 Coulomb = 1 Ampere second or 1C = 1As

Semi-Conductors

Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors

(generally metals) and non conductors or insulators (such as most ceramics).
Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or germanium, or
compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide.

These elements are used in the manufacturing of computer chip transistors which
enables every electronic device to perform complex tasks.
 Wave Properties
Alternating Current
In an alternating current ● Period, T - Time it
(a.c) the direction of flow takes for one cycle
reverses regularly. to be completed.

The electricity that runs ● Frequency, f -

through your walls are AC Number of cycles
current. per second. (f =
1/T)
The alternating current symbol
● Peak value -
Sinusoidal wave Maximum value.
Direct current

In Direct current (d.c) the

electrons flow in one
direction only.

A common source of direct

current are batteries.
The direct current symbol
A device that has a battery
are also charged using d.c
current.
Points to note:

● Cells and batteries supply d.c.

● Generators may be a.c. or d.c.
● The main supply is a.c.
● Both a.c. and d.c. may be used for
heating, lighting etc.
● A.c. can be rectified to give d.c.
analyse current-time or voltage-time graphs.

https://www.savemyexams.co.uk/a-level/physics/aqa/17/revision-notes/7-fields--th
eir-consequences/7-7-capacitor-charge--discharge/7-7-1-charge--discharge-graph
s/
ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES
3.1 cite examples of the conversion of electrical energy to other forms
and vice versa;
3.2 apply the relationship V = E/Q;
3.3 apply the relationship P =IV ;
3.4 discuss the importance of conserving electrical energy and the
means of doing so.
Conversion of electrical energy to other forms and vice versa

Thermoelectric (Heat → Electrical energy)

Geothermal power (Heat→ Electrical energy)

Hydroelectric dams (Gravitational potential energy → Electrical energy)

Electric generator (Kinetic energy or Mechanical work → Electrical energy)

Fuel cells (Chemical energy → Electrical energy)

Battery (electricity) (Chemical energy → Electrical energy)

Electric lamp (Electrical energy → Heat and Light)

Microphone (Sound → Electrical energy)

Electrical energy

We use electricity to heat and light our homes. Electrical energy transferred is
calculated by multiplying current, voltage and time.
Electrical Quantities
● Current, I – the rate of flow of charge per unit time.
● S.I. unit: Ampere, A

I = Q/t →

where Q is charge, measured in coulombs (C)

and t is time in seconds

Electrical Quantities
● Potential Difference, V – the work done or energy converted when unit charge
passes between two points in a circuit or an electric field.
● Potential difference (p.d.) is also called voltage.
● S.I. unit: Volt, V

● where E is energy in joules

● Q is the Charge in coulombs(C)
Electrical Quantities

● Resistance, R – a measure of an electrical component opposition to the flow of charge. Voltage per
unit current
● S.I. unit: Ohm, Ω

What does Ohm’s law state?

Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through
it, provided all physical conditions and temperature remain constant.

Ohm’s law only holds true if the provided temperature and the other physical factors remain constant.
Electrical Quantities
● Power, P – the rate at which work is done or energy is converted.
● S.I. unit: Watt, W
Electrical Quantities

● Electromotive Force, E – the energy converted to electrical energy by a

source when unit charge passes through it.
● It is also the greatest p.d. that can be generated by a particular source of
electric current.
● E.m.f is associated with sources (or active devices) while p.d. is used in
reference to an electric field or load (passive device).
● In practice, the emf can be observed only when the source is not supplying
any current, because the source has internal resistance.
 CIRCUIT AND
COMPONENTS
4.1 use symbols to construct circuit diagrams;
4.2 differentiate between series and parallel circuits;
4.3 explain the functions of the various parts of a zinc-carbon cell;
4.4 distinguish between primary and secondary cells;
4.5 draw a circuit diagram to show how a secondary cell can be recharged
4.6 investigate the relationship between current and potential difference;
Electrical Circuit
Electrical circuit is an
interconnection of
electrical components. An
electrical circuit consists
of batteries, resistors,
inductors, capacitors,
switches or transistors.

A circuit is a closed path

where electrons flow in a
wire.
Electrical Components

These are the symbols that will be

used to create your circuit diagrams
going forward. Learn them as you will
often be asked to identify various
symbols or draw a circuit containing
certain symbols.
QUESTION!
QUESTION!
SERIES CIRCUITS

In a series circuit there is

only one possible 'path'
through which the current
can flow along. The
components in the circuit
are connected ‘one after
the other’.
QUESTION!
SERIES CIRCUIT APPLICATIONS

Christmas lights are usually connected in series,

meaning that if one of the bulbs in the circuit
‘blows’ then the whole string of lights will not light,
as there is now a break in the circuit.

Water heaters, freezers and refrigerators are

examples of appliances that utilize series circuitry.
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

In a parallel circuit, there

are several possible
'paths' through which the
current can flow. The
components are
connected in different
‘branches’ in the circuit.
QUESTION!
PARALLEL CIRCUIT APPLICATIONS

The lights connected in a home are connected in

parallel. This ensures that lights can be turned on in
the home independently.

Parallel circuitry is the standard type found in homes

and devices. Street lights and computer hardware
are some examples.
SERIES-PARALLEL COMBINATION CIRCUITS

A mixture of series and parallel

connections can be in one
circuit. There are some places
where there is only one possible
'path' through the lamps, and
some places where there is
more than one 'path’.
POLARITY

Polarity describes an attribute that can usually have two (2) values.

For example, an electric charge has a polarity of either positive or negative and a
magnet has a polarity, in that one end is the north pole and the other end is the
south pole.
BATTERY POLARITY
CELLS AND BATTERIES
All cells have two terminals (or electrodes), a
positive (+) and a negative (-).

A battery is two or more cells connected together to

increase the voltage.
PRIMARY CELLS

Primary cells use a chemical reaction that converts stored chemical energy into
electrical energy in a process that cannot be reversed. These cells only have one
useful life and should be disposed of carefully or recycled, if possible.

Zinc-carbon cells are primary cells.

SECONDARY CELLS

Secondary cells can be reused as they are rechargeable.

The chemical reaction that gives out electrical energy can be reversed by
connecting the cell to a charger.

Secondary cells are also sometimes called storage cells or accumulators.

Although they are usually more expensive to buy than primary cells, they last
much longer, so are usually cheaper in the long term.

Rechargeable batteries are secondary cells.

ZINC-CARBON CELL

This is a dry cell, it uses the chemicals in paste form, so they do not spill. It is
safer and portable.

The zinc-carbon dry cell has a zinc electrode and a carbon electrode. When new,
the cell has a EMF of 1.5 V. This voltage falls as the cell is used. Over time the
zinc dissolves, meaning the cell is usually useless in less than a year.
 Resistance
4.7 explain the concept of resistance;
4.8 apply the relationship I VR ;
4.9 explain why it is necessary for an ammeter to have a very low
resistance;
4.10 explain why it is necessary for a voltmeter to have a very high
resistance;
4.11 solve problems involving series and parallel resistance;
4.12 solve problems involving series, parallel and series-parallel circuits;
Electrical Resistance

Electrons like any other moving body follows the

path of least resistance
Which road would
you rather take on ?
RESISTANCE, R

The resistance of a conductor is

the ratio of the voltage across it to
the current through it.

The measure of how much a

component opposes the flow of
current through it.
 RESISTANCE, R
 
Resistance in a light Which is the best wire
bulb for a a bulb?
Resistance
What impacts resistance in
Resistance slows down a wire?
moving elections. ● The material
When electrons slow ● The length
down they convert ● The thickness
electrical energy into ● The temperature
light, heat and sound.
QUESTION!
If a current of 4 A flows through a car headlamp when it is
connected to a 12 V car battery, what is its resistance?
 Example for you
For calculating resistors in
series:

R1+R2+R3 … = RT

For resistors in parallel:

1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 … = 1/RT

 Resistance in an Ammeter and Voltmeter
Ammeter Voltmeter
The internal resistance of an ideal The internal resistance of the ideal
ammeter will be zero since it should voltmeter is infinity since it should not
allow current to pass through it. allow any current to flow through the
The ammeter is connected in series voltmeter.
in a circuit to measure the current Voltmeter measures the potential
flow through the circuit. difference, it is connected in parallel.
 I – V CHARACTERISTICS:
OHMIC CONDUCTOR

Following Ohm’s law, voltage, V,

and current, I, are directly
proportional. Therefore the I-V
characteristic of an ohmic
conductor (a graph) will be a
straight line.
 For conductors that obey Ohm's
OHMIC CONDUCTOR law, the gradient of an I-V graph is
the inverse of the resistance.
 Electricity in the Home
4.13 discuss the reasons for using parallel connections of domestic appliances;
4.14 explain the purpose of a fuse or circuit breaker and the earth wire;
4.15 select a fuse or circuit breaker of suitable current rating for a given
appliance;
4.16 state the adverse effects of connecting electrical appliances to incorrect or
fluctuating voltage supplies.
ELECTRICITY IN THE HOME

Electricity comes to homes by a cable containing two wires: live and neutral. The
neutral is earthed at the local substation.

The supply is a.c., with the live wire alternately positive and negative.

It has a frequency of 50 Hz and usually a p.d. of 110 V in most Caribbean islands.

Every circuit is connected in parallel with the supply and receives the full mains
p.d.

Appliances must be connected to the correct voltage to ensure proper working and
to avoid damage.
Fuses

A fuse is a short length of wire with a low melting point, which melts and breaks
the circuit when the current through it is greater than a certain value.

Switches and fuses are always in the live wire so that switching off disconnects
the high voltage from an appliance.

.:.Always switch off before replacing a fuse.

Circuit Breakers
A circuit breaker contains an electromagnet which becomes strong enough to separate a
pair of contacts and thus break the circuit when the current exceeds the rated value.

Circuit breakers are used in many consumer units instead of fuses.

Advantages of the circuit breaker:

● The circuit is broken in less than 0.01 seconds; a fuse takes much longer.
● The contacts of the circuit breaker are closed again by pressing a button. A blown
fuse has to be replaced.

Fuses and circuit breakers are to protect the wiring of the circuit. If the wiring overheats

due to too large a current, the insulation will melt and a fire will start.
Earthing and Safety
Some powers sockets, especially those in places like kitchens,have a third
connection called earth.

The earth connection of sockets is joined to a metal water pipe in the house or to
an earth connection on the supply cable.

It is a safety precaution to prevent electric shock in case an appliance develops a

fault. The earth pin on a three-pin plug is connected to the metal case of the
appliance, which is thus joined to earth by a path of almost zero resistance.

If, for example, a live wire touches the case, a large current flows to earth and
blows the fuse. Otherwise the case becomes ‘live’ and anyone touching it receives
a shock, which might be fatal.
Questions

1. What is the purpose of :

a. a fuse?

b. a circuit breaker?

c. an earth connection?

2. Describe how a fuse works.

3. State two advantages of a circuit breaker over a fuse.

Questions

4. Suggest a disadvantage of the circuit breaker.

5. Give two reasons why appliances are connected in parallel with the supply
voltage.

6. What is the effect of connecting an appliance to an incorrect or fluctuating

voltage supply?

7. Why is it important to conserve electrical energy?

8. State three ways in which electrical energy can be conserved.

 ELECTRONICS
5.1 describe how a semi-conductor dioxide can be used in half wave rectification;
5.2 differentiate between direct current from batteries and rectified alternating current by a
consideration of the V – t graphs for both cases;
5.3 recall the symbols for AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR logic gates;
5.4 state the function of each gate with the aid of truth tables;
5.5 analyze circuits involving the combinations of not more than three logic gates;
5.6 discuss the impact of electronic and technological advances on society.
Semiconductor diode

A semiconductor is a class of material between a good conductor and an insulator.

Examples of semiconducting materials include silicon and germanium.

A semiconductor diode allows current to flow in one direction only.

Current will not flow in the other direction.

Diodes are used to convert an alternating current into a direct current.

 Rectifiers Fun video about
rectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical device that
converts alternating current (AC),
which periodically reverses direction, to
direct current (DC), which flows in only
one direction.
Logic Gates
A logic gate is a device that acts as a
building block for digital circuits.
They perform basic logical functions
that are fundamental to digital circuits.
Most electronic devices we use today
will have some form of logic gates in
them.
For example, logic gates can be used in
technologies such as smartphones,
tablets or within memory devices.
AND gate
The output is "true" when
both inputs are "true."
Otherwise, the output is
"false."
OR gate
The output is "true" if
either or both of the
inputs are "true." If both
inputs are "false," then
the output is "false."
NOT gate
It reverses the logic state.
If the input is 1, then the
output is 0. If the input is
0, then the output is 1.
NAND
The NAND gate operates
as an AND gate followed
by a NOT gate.

he output is "false" if both

inputs are "true."
Otherwise, the output is
"true."
NOR gate
The NOR gate is a
combination OR gate
followed by an inverter.
Its output is "true" if both
inputs are "false."
Otherwise, the output is
"false."
How has electronics and technology changes society?
 MAGNETISM
6.1 differentiate between magnetic and non-magnetic materials;
6.2 explain how a magnet can attract an unmagnetised object;
6.3 distinguish between materials used to make "permanent" and "temporary" magnets;
6.4 identify the poles of a magnetic dipole;
6.5 investigate the forces between magnetic poles;
6.6 define a magnetic field;
6.7 map magnetic fields.
Magnetism

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field.

This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a
magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, steel,
nickel, cobalt, etc. and attracts or repels other magnets.

There are always two places on a magnet (called the poles of the magnet) to
which magnetic materials are attracted.
MAGNETIC FIELDS

A magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic force may be exerted.

A magnetic field line indicates the direction of the magnetic force acting on an N-
pole.

Also, the closer the lines the stronger the magnetic field in that region. Parallel
lines indicate a uniform magnetic field.
Magnetic Fields
 ELECTROMAGNETISM
7.1 conduct simple experiments to investigate the magnetic field pattern around current-carrying conductors;
7.2 apply suitable rules which relate the direction of current flow to the direction of the magnetic field;
7.3 describe a commercial application of an electromagnet;
7.4 conduct an experiment which demonstrates the existence of a force on a current-carrying conductor placed in
a magnetic field;
7.5 sketch the resultant magnetic flux pattern when a current carrying wire is placed perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field;
7.6 apply Fleming’s left- hand (motor) rule;
7.7 identify the factors that affect the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field;
7.8 explain the action of a D.C. motor;
7.9 describe simple activities which demonstrate an induced e.m.f.;
7.10 conduct simple experiments to show the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.;
7.11 predict the direction of induced current given the direction of motion of the conductor and that of the
magnetic field;
7.12 explain the action of the A.C. generator;
Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism is
the physical interaction
among electric
charges, magnetic
moments, and the
electromagnetic field.
 Educational
Gang Signs
● The direction of the magnetic field may
Right Hand Rule be shown using the right-hand grip rule:
If your right hand grasps the wire, with
the thumb pointing in the direction of the
current then your four folded fingers
would point in the direction of the
magnetic field.
● The magnetic field is cylindrical all along
the length of the straight wire.
Magnetic field of a straight wire
The magnetic field pattern around a straight wire carrying a current is circular

(concentric).

● The magnetic force is greater nearer

to the wire. Hence the concentric
circles are closer together when they
are nearer to the wire but wider apart
when they are further from the wire.
● Reversing the current reverses the
direction of the magnetic field.
● Increasing the current increases the
strength of the magnetic field.
Magnetic field of a flat circular coil.

● All the magnetic field lines point in the same

direction within the coil.
● Reversing the current reverses the direction of
the magnetic field.
● Increasing the current increases the strength
of the magnetic field.
● The direction of the magnetic field can be
obtained by the right hand rule as shown
above in the straight conductor.
● The 3-dimensional magnetic field pattern is
shaped somewhat like a doughnut.
Magnetic field of a solenoid

A solenoid is equivalent to many

circular coils of the same diameter,
stacked together side by side.
The magnetic field is in the same
direction within the coil and
diverges slightly at both ends. This
pattern is similar to that of a bar
magnet.
Magnetic field of a solenoid

If the direction of the current is clockwise The right-hand grip rule for a
solenoid: If the fingers of the right
when viewed from one end of the coil, the
hand grip the solenoid in the direction
magnetic field lines go into that end of the of the current, the thumb points in the
coil like the south pole of a bar magnet. direction of the N-pole.
If the direction of the current is anti-
clockwise when viewed from one end of
the coil, the magnetic field lines emerge
from that end of the coil like the north
pole of a bar magnet.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE
When a conductor carrying a current is
placed in a magnetic field, it will experience
a force.

If the conductor is free to move, it will. The

force increases with the strength of the
magnetic field, the size of the current and
the length of the conductor.

The directions of the force, current and

magnetic field are described by Fleming’s
Left Hand Rule.
Fleming’s Left Hand rule
If the first finger, second finger and thumb of the left hand are held mutually
perpendicular to each other, so that the first finger points in the direction of the
magnetic field, and the second finger points in the direction of the current, the thumb
will point in the direction of the thrust or motion of the conductor.
THE D.C. MOTOR
A motor is a machine that converts electrical energy
into mechanical/kinetic energy. It uses the behaviour
of a current-carrying wire in the presence of a
magnetic field.

The direct current (d.c.) motor consists of a

rectangular coil of wire mounted on an axle so that it
can rotate between magnetic poles. The two ends of
the coil are soldered to the two halves of a copper
split-ring commutator. Two carbon brushes are made
to press lightly against the commutator by means of
springs.
Induced E.M.F.

The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a source of electrical energy is the energy it

supplies to each coulomb of charge flowing round the complete circuit. It is equal
to the terminal p.d. on open circuit.

When a conductor is moved so that it cuts the flux (or lines of force) of a magnetic
field, an e.m.f is induced between the ends of the conductor.
Simple A.C. Generator
A generator is a machine for
converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy.

An alternating current (a.c.)

generator. Consists of a rectangular
coil between the poles of a C-
shaped magnet called the field
magnet. Each end of the coil is
connected to a slip ring, mounted on
the axle, against which carbon
brushes press lightly.
 Transformers
7.13 explain the principle of operation of a transformer;
7.14 state the advantages of using a.c. for transferring
electrical energy;
7.15 apply the ideal transformer formula Pout = Pin.
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device which is used for
changing the voltage of a supply of varying
or alternating current (a.c.) without
changing the frequency of the supply.

The device consists essentially of two

electrically separate coils which are
magnetically linked usually by being both
wound on the same magnetic body or
structure called the “core” of the
transformer.
 Structure
Thick insulated (enamelled)
copper wires are generally
used for making the coils and
both are insulated electrically
from the soft iron former or
core.
The core is usually constructed
as a compact set of identical
sections, called “laminations”,
which are electrically but not
magnetically insulated from one
another.
Principle of Operation
The action of a transformer is based on a phenomenon called electromagnetic
induction.

When an alternating potential difference (p.d.) is applied to the primary coil, the
resulting current produces a large alternating magnetic field or flux which reaches the
secondary coil and induces an e.m.f in it.

We say that secondary is “linked” to the primary.

The magnitude of the induced e.m.f depends on the p.d. applied to the primary and
on the relative numbers of turns Np and Ns, comprising the primary and secondary
coils, respectively.
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER

No real transformer is 100% efficient but many in everyday use have efficiencies
which are extremely high (approaching 100%) compared with other types of
machines. Such high efficiencies are consistent with our understanding of the
electromagnetic principles involved in the operation of transformers and so the
concept on an “ideal” transformer is extremely useful from the theoretical and
practical standpoints.

∴ An ideal transformer may be defined as one for which the input and output
powers are equal. Hence Pout = Pin , by definition
Math time!

The secondary circuit is the output circuit, and the primary circuit is the input circuit
of a transformer, hence,

Ps = P p
Vs = is the secondary voltage,
Thus
Vp = is the primary voltage,
Is Vs = Ip Vp
Ip = is the primary current and
or
Is = is the secondary current
𝑉𝑠/𝑉𝑝 = 𝐼𝑝/ 𝐼𝑠
Turns-ratio (step Up and step Down transformers)
More detailed analysis shows that:

𝑉𝑠 / 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑁𝑠 / 𝑁𝑝

where Ns and Np are number of turns of the secondary and primary coils respectively.

The quantity 𝑁𝑠 / 𝑁𝑝 is called the turns-ratio and determines how large (or small) the secondary
voltage of the ideal transformer is in relation to its primary voltage.

For a step-up transformer Vs > Vp then for an ideal step-up transformer the turns-ratio is greater than 1.

For a step-down transformer Vs < Vp so for an ideal step-down transformer the turns-ratio is less than
1.

One may also infer that for a step-up transformer, I s < Ip and for a step-down transformer, I s > Ip.
Past paper Questions