FLUID MECHANICS I
ME 2113
OUTLINE OF THE COURSE
Introduction
Fluid Static
Fluid Dynamics
Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
Measurement of Fluid Flow
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REFERENCE BOOKS
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
Bruce Munson, Donald Young, Theodore Okiishi & Wade
Huebsch
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Robert Fox, Alan McDonald & Philip Pritchard
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INTRODUCTION
4 Dr. Abdullah Al-Faruk
WHAT IS FLUID MECHANICS & FLUID
Fluid mechanics is the subject that deals with fluids either in
motion or at rest and how it impacts on other objects that are in
contact with it.
A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously
when acted on by a shearing stress of any magnitude
A shearing stress (force per unit area) is created whenever a
tangential force acts on a surface
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MAIN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLIDS,
LIQUIDS AND GASES
Contrary to liquids and gases, solid molecules have great
bondage and needs large forces to move them with respect to
each other (deform or bend)
The amount of deformation of the solid depends on the solid’s
modulus of rigidity G.
Gases and liquids which are generally fluids; cannot sustain a
shear stress. Their molecules have less bondage and they will
deform i.e. flow when applying the slightest shear stress. For
example, a gentle breath on the face of a lake makes the water
ripples on the surface (moves or flows)
Deformation of the fluid depends on it’s viscosity
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FLUID VERSUS SOLID
When a shear stress is applied:
Fluids continuously deform but solids deform or bend
Shear stress t in solids is proportional to the strain ε
Shear stress t in fluids is proportional to the rate of strain dε/dt
du
dy
Fig: Difference in behaviour of a solid and a fluid due to a shear force
APPLICATIONS OF FLUID MECHANICS
All means of transportation such as cars, trucks, aeroplanes,
ships, submarines, …
Design all of fluid machinery such as pumps, turbines,
compressors, …
Piping systems for transporting water, natural gas, …
Environmental and energy issues (large-scale wind turbines,
energy generation from ocean waves, aerodynamics of large
buildings)
Biomechanics (Artificial hearts & liver, Synovial fluid in joints,
respiratory system, circulatory system, urinary system)
Sports (bicycles and bicycle helmets, skis, and sprinting and 8
swimming clothing; aerodynamics of golf, tennis, soccer ball)
BASIC EQUATIONS OF FLUID
MECHANICS
Conservation of mass (Continuity equation)
Mass cannot be created or destroyed
Conservation of momentum (Momentum equation)
It is obtained from Newton’s 2nd law of motion
Sum of all forces = mass X acceleration
= net rate of change of momentum
Conservation of angular momentum
Sum of torque = net rate of change of angular momentum
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BASIC EQUATIONS OF FLUID
MECHANICS
First law of thermodynamics or Conservation of energy
(Energy equation)
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change form
Change in total energy E of the system
∆E = Q (heat added) – W (work done by the system)
Second law of thermodynamics
No process is possible whose sole result is the net transfer of heat from
a region of lower temperature to a higher temperature
Equation of state
Ideal gas law, p = ρRT
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METHODS OF ANALYSIS
SYSTEM VERSUS CONTROL VOLUME
First step in solving a problem is to define the system like the
free-body diagram in engineering mechanics
Depending on the problem being studied, a system or a control
volume is used
Mathematical expressions of the basic laws are then derived
from either system or control volume
System is a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass
Heat and work can cross the system boundary
but no mass
Boundaries may be fixed or
moveable
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Fig: Piston-cylinder assembly
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
SYSTEM VERSUS CONTROL VOLUME
Control volume is an arbitrary volume (open system) in space
through which fluid flows
Geometric boundary is called control surface (CS)
Heat, work and mass can cross the CS
CS may be real or imaginary
CS may be at rest or in motion
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Fig: Fluid flow through a pipe junction
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
DIFFERENTIAL VERSUS INTEGRAL APPROACH
Basic equations formulated in terms of infinitesimal or finite
systems and control volume gives differential or integral
equations, respectively
Differential approach gives detailed information of the flow
i.e. details of velocities and pressures in the domain
For example, pressure distribution on a wing surface
Integral approach gives a gross behaviour of device, such as
flow rate, forces, pressure drop or increase
For example, the overall lift a wing produces
Integral formulations, using finite systems or control volumes,
usually are easier to treat analytically
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METHODS OF DESCRIPTION
Type of analysis depends on the problem under study
When identifiable elements of mass is easy to keep track,
Lagrangian method of description is used that follows the
particle
When a particle description becomes unmanageable, Eulerian
method of description is used particularly with control volume
analyses
Eulerian method focuses on the properties of a flow at a given
point in space as a function of time. That means it follows what
happens at a point in the flow field: V = V(x,y,z,t), p =
p(x,y,z,t)
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DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
SI units will be used
Basic dimensions and their SI units
Length L (m)
Mass M (kg)
Time t (s)
Temperature T (ºC & K)
Derived dimensions and their SI units
Speed (m/s)
Force (N or kg.m/s2)
Pressure (Pa or N/m2)
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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
16 Dr. Abdullah Al-Faruk
FLUID AS A CONTINUUM
It is the basis of classical fluid mechanics
Fluids are experienced as being ‘smooth’ i.e. continuous
medium. However, fluid mass is concentrated in molecules that
are separated by large regions of empty space, moving at high
speed
What is the minimum volume for a point must be, so that fluid
property such as density vary smoothly from point to point
(become continuous)
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FLUID AS A CONTINUUM
For very small volumes density varies greatly, but above a
certain volume it becomes stable
For example, if the volume is 0.001 mm3, there will be on
average 2.5x1013 molecules and then it can be treated as
continuous medium
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Fig: Definition of density at a point
FLUID AS A CONTINUUM
In classical fluid mechanics, fluid properties vary smoothly and
continually from point to point
Not concern with molecular motion. It is rather macroscopic
motion
As a result of the fluid being continuum its’ properties are
considered to be continuous functions of position and time
f(x,y,z,t) which are called fields
For example,
Velocity field, V = V(x,y,z,t), V = ui + vj + wk , where, u , v , w are
in general functions of x, y, z, t
Density field, ρ = ρ(x,y,z,t)
Pressure field, p = p(x,y,z,t) 19
Temperature field, T = T(x,y,z,t)
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Density, ρ is defined as the mass per unit volume:
ρ = m / V (kg/m3)
Specific Gravity SG, is defined as the ratio of the density of the
fluid to the density of water at 4ºC temperature:
SG = ρ / ρWater@4ºC
Specific Weight, g is defined the weight of the fluid per unit
volume:
g = W / V (N/m3)
Specific weight is related to density as
g = ρg and SG = g / g Water@4ºC
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TYPES OF FLUIDS
Newtonian fluids have a linear relationship between shear
stress and velocity gradient
Non-Newtonian fluids have nonlinear relationship between
shear stress and velocity gradient
Shear thickening like water-corn starch, quicksand
Shear thinning like latex paint, some greases, blood, water
suspension of clay, polymer solutions
Bingham plastic like toothpaste, mayonnaise, asphalt, some
greases, paper pulp
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Fluid properties (density, pressure, temperature,…) are
considered to be continuous functions of position and time
(continuum) and can be expressed as a function of (x,y,z,t).
STEADY FLOW: A flow that its properties at every point do
not change with time.
A flow is classified as one- (x), two- (x,y), three- (x,y,z), or
four-dimensional (x,y,z,t or unsteady three-dimensional).
UNIFORM FLOW: A flow in which the velocity is constant
throughout the entire floe field
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VISUALIZATION OF FLUID FLOW
TIMELINE: A line formed by a number of adjacent fluid particles in a
flow field at a given instant.
PATHLINE: A path or trajectory traced out by a moving fluid
particles.
STREAKLINE: A line joining particles that pass through a specific
point.
STREAMLINES: Lines drawn in the flow field so that at a given
instant they are tangent to the direction of flow at every point in the
flow field.
Timeline: It is the line that a number of adjacent fluid particles form in
a flow filed at a particular instant
Pathlines: is the trajectory traced by a moving fluid particle
Streaklines: are lines joining all fluid particles which passed through
one fixed location in space
Streamlines: are lines drawn in the flow filed so that at a given instant23
they are tangent to the direction of flow at every point in the flow filed
In steady flow streamlines, streaklines and pathlines coincide
STRESS FIELD
There are two kinds of forces act on fluid particles,
Surface forces which act on the surface (e.g. pressure,
friction) and body forces which act on the volume (e.g.
gravity).
Stresses are force per area and divided in two categories,
normal stresses (s) which are normal to the area and
shear stresses (t) which are tangent to the area.
Two subscripts are required to label the stresses. The
first subscripts the plane on which the stress acts, the
second subscript indicates the direction of the stress ( see
Fig. 2.8, text book).
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STRESS FIELD
Surface forces: act on the boundaries of a medium
through direct contact
Body forces: distributed over the volume of the fluid
without physical contact; gravitational and
electromagnetic, etc
Stresses result from forces acting on some portion of the
medium
Pressure P; is the normal force i.e. perpendicular to the
surface: P = F / A (N/m2)
– Normal stresses
– Tangential stresses
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– Stress tensor
VISCOSITY
Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.
Newtonian fluids: Fluids in which shear stress is directly
proportional to rate of deformation. Newton’s law of viscosity
is given for one-dimensional flow by,
Where m is the absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity.
There are two common units for the absolute viscosity, 1 poise
is g/(cm.s) (C.G.S units) and 1 kg/(m.s)=Pa.s=N.s/m2.
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SURFACE TENSION
Whenever a liquid is in contact with other liquids or gases, an
interface develops that acts like a stretched elastic membrane,
creating surface tension (e.g. capillary rise). They can be
calculated if you follow what you learnt in the course STATIC
(and using appendix A-2, textbook).
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DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF FLUID MOTIONS
Inviscid flow is a frictionless flow (low viscosity). In practice, inviscid
flow is a flow that the effects of friction are small in comparison with
other forces.
Viscous flow is a flow that the effects of the friction cannot be ignored.
Laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles move in smooth layers.
Turbulent flow is one in which the fluid particles rapidly mix as they
move along due to random three-dimensional velocity fluctuations.
Newton’s law of viscosity is not valid for turbulent flows.
Incompressible flows: Flows in which variations in density are
negligible.
Compressible flows: Flows in which variations in density are not
negligible.
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DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF FLUID MOTIONS
Pressure and density changes in liquids are related by the bulk
compressibility modulus, or modulus of elasticity, dp
Ev
( d / )
Barotropic fluid: The density is only a function of pressure.
Water hammer is caused by acoustic waves propagating and reflecting in
liquid flows.
Cavitation occurs when vapour pockets form in a liquid flow because of
local reductions in pressure.
Vapour pressure of a liquid is the partial pressure of the vapour in
contact with the saturated liquid at a given temperature.
Mach number (M): The ratio of flow speed (V) to the local speed of
sound (c).
It is a common practice to treat the flow as incompressible when M<0.329
and there is no heat transfer.
DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF FLUID MOTIONS
Internal flows: Flows completely bounded by solid
surfaces.
External flows: Flows over bodies immersed in an
unbounded fluid.
Subsonic flow: M<1,
Supersonic flow: M>1,
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Hypersonic flow: M>5.
