FLUID MECHANICS

(GET 228)
Lecture 1

Instructor: Dr. Petrus Nzerem

Office: Block A, Room 306
Email: petrus.nzerem@nileuniversity.edu.ng
 Introduction
COURSE OBJECTIVES
• To have an understanding of the fundamental
principles underlying the behaviour of fluids in
order to apply them in a systematic manner to
solve practical engineering problems.
• To provide a ready reference and basic methods
for the analysis of a variety of problems
encountered in the movement of fluids through
pipes, pumps and all kinds of process equipment.
 Introduction
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
• Course duration:
– 15 weeks; 3 hours/week

• Attendance:
– Attendance is obligatory and a minimum of 70% is
required to qualify for final examinations
– Admission into lecture room shall not be permitted
15 minutes after commencement of lectures.
 Introduction
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
• Academic Integrity:
– Violations of academic integrity, including dishonesty in
assignments, examinations, or other academic
performances are prohibited.
– Presenting another person’s work and submit it as your
own is prohibited; that is plagiarism.
• Assignments and Group Work:
– Students are expected to submit assignments as
scheduled.
– Failure to submit an assignment as at when due will
attract daily mark deductions of 5%.
 Introduction
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
• Code of Conduct during Lecture & Exams:
– Students should turn off their cell phones or at
most put on silence during lectures.
– They should not be brought into the examination
hall.
– Noise making during lectures may attract student
expulsion from the lecture room.
 Introduction
• Grading methods:
– Quiz: 40% (At the end each class)
– Final examination: 60% (20/06/2022 – 09/07/2022)
 Introduction‒ Course outline
Wk Date Topic
1 28.02.2022 Introduction
2 07.03.2022 Properties of fluids;
3 14.03.2022 Properties of fluids; Quiz
4 21.03.2022 Properties of fluids;
5 28.03.2022 Properties of fluids; Quiz
6 04.04.2022 Fluid Statics;
7 11.04.2022 Fluid Dynamics; Quiz
8 18.04.2022 Fluid Dynamics;
9 25.04.2022 Laminar flow in pipes;
10 02.05.2022 Turbulent flow in pipes; Quiz
11 09.05.2022 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude;
12 16.05.2022 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude; Quiz
13 23.05.2022 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude;
14 30.05.2022 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude; Quiz
15 06.06.2022 Revision
16 13.06.2022 Lecture Free
17 20.06.2022 Exam commences
 Introduction
• Reading list
– Fluid Mechanics by Yunus A. Cengel and John M.
Cimbala; 3ed
– A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics by R. K. Rajput
– Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics by Bruce R.
Munson, Alric P. Rothmayer, Theodore H. Okiishi,
and Wade W. Huebsch; 8ed
– Fluid Mechanics by John F. Douglas, Janusz M.
Gasiorek, John A. Swaffield, and Lynne B. Jack; 5ed
– Fluid Mechanics by Frank M. White; 8ed
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
• What is fluid mechanics

Fluid Mechanics
A fluid is a substance which Mechanics is the physical
deforms continuously under science that deals with both
the action of shearing forces, stationary (statics) and moving
however small they may be. bodies(dynamics) under the
influence of forces.
Therefore, fluid mechanics is defined as the science that
deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or
in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
Branches of fluid mechanics
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
• Branches of fluid mechanics :
– Fluid Statics (The study of the behaviour of fluids at
rest)
• Hydrostatics‐ deals with the study of incompressible
fluids (i.e. fluids that do not undergo significant density
changes with pressure such as liquids, especially water)
at rest.
• Aerostatics deals with the study of compressible fluids
(i.e. fluids that undergo significant density changes with
pressure) at rest.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
• Branches of fluid mechanics:
– Fluid Dynamics (The study of the behaviour of
fluids in motion)
• Hydrodynamics‐ the study of the motion of fluids that
can be approximated as incompressible (such as liquids,
especially water, and gases at low speeds) is usually
referred to as hydrodynamics. (External flow)
• Aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially
air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and
automobiles at high or low speeds. (External Flow)
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
• Branches of fluid mechanics:
– Fluid Dynamics (The study of the behaviour of
fluids in motion)
• Hydraulics‐ A branch of hydrodynamics that deals with
liquid flows in pipes and open channels. (Internal Flows)
• Gas dynamics- A branch of fluid dynamics which deals
with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density
changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at
high speeds. (Internal Flow)
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
• Deformation caused by shearing forces :

L M L’ M’

K N K N

Fig. 1.1: Undeformed rubber block Fig. 1.2: Deformation of a rubber

placed between two parallel plates block placed between two parallel
plates under the influence of a
shear force.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts

L L’ M M’
a 𝑥
E·
𝑦
K N

Fig. 1.3: Deformation caused by shearing forces

on an element of fluid.

Fig. 1.4: The normal stress and shear

stress at the surface of a fluid element.
For fluids at rest, the shear stress is
zero and pressure is the only normal
stress.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts

Fig. 1.5: Variation of velocity with distance from a solid boundary

The fluid in contact with the boundary adheres to it and will, therefore,
have the same velocity as the boundary. Considering successive layers
parallel to the boundary (Fig. 1.5), the velocity of the fluid will vary
from layer to layer as Y increases.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
For fluid particle E (Fig. 1.3) that moves through a distance, 𝑥, in time, t:
Shear strain, α = 𝑥/𝑦 (increases with a constant applied shear force)
Rate of shear strain = α/t = 𝑥/𝑦.t (proportional to applied shear force)

where u = 𝑥/t is the velocity of the particle at E.

Assuming the experimental result that shear stress is proportional to
rate of shear strain, then:
τ = constant × u/𝑦 (1.1)

In differential form:

Newton’s law of viscosity (1.2)

Depends on the liquid
under consideration
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
• Differences between solids and fluids:

Solid Fluid
Strain is a function of the The rate of strain is
applied stress, provided that proportional to the applied
the elastic limit is not exceeded stress
Strain (deformation) is A fluid continues to flow for as
independent of the time over long as the force is applied and
which the force is applied and, will not recover its original
disappears when the force is form when the force is
removed, provided the elastic removed.
limit is not exceeded.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS
• Two criteria for fluid classification:
1. Response to externally applied pressure, thus:
a. Compressible fluids; those whose densities change
with pressure
b. Incompressible fluids; those whose densities are
independent of pressure.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS
• Two criteria for fluid classification:
1. Response to externally applied pressure,

Gases are highly compressible. Water and hydraulic fluids are

almost completely
incompressible.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS
• Two criteria for fluid classification:
2. Response to shear stress:
a. Newtonian fluids; those where the ratio of the shear
stress to rate of shear is constant and is equal to the
viscosity of the fluid.
b. Non-Newtonian fluids; those where the ratio of shear
stress to rate of shear is not constant and the apparent
viscosity of the fluid is a function of the rate of shear
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS
• Two criteria for fluid classification:
2. Response to shear stress:

a) Water (Newtonian b) Ketchup and Cornstarch

Fluid) (Non-Newtonian Fluid)
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
IDEAL VS REAL FLUIDS
• An ideal fluid is one which is incompressible and has
zero viscosity (or in other words shear stress is always
zero regardless of the motion of the fluid) i.e. τ = 0

• An ideal fluid has the following characteristics

I. No viscosity (i.e. μ = 0)
II. No surface tension
III. Incompressible (i.e. density = constant)

• In reality, an ideal fluid does not exist.

 Introduction and Basic Concepts
• THE CONTINUUM CONCEPT OF A FLUID:
– A continuum is a hypothetical continuous,
homogeneous matter with no holes.

Despite the relatively large gaps between

molecules, a gas can usually be treated as a
continuum because of the very large number of
molecules even in an extremely small volume
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
• THE CONTINUUM CONCEPT OF A FLUID :
– Allows properties to be treated as point functions

A Point function is a function

whose value depends on the
final and initial states of the
thermodynamic process,
irrespective of the path
followed by the process.
 Applications of Fluid Mechanics
Piping Systems
 The piping systems for water, natural gas and sewage for an
industrial house and entire city are designed primarily on the basis
of fluid mechanics
 The piping and ducting network of heating and air-conditioning
systems are designed on the basis of fluid mechanics.

Aeronautic Systems
 Fluid mechanics plays a major part in the design and analysis of
aircraft, rockets, jet engines
 Applications of Fluid Mechanics

Automobile Engineering
 The design of all components associated with the transportation
of the fuel from the fuel tank to the cylinders-the fuel line, fuel
pump, and the air in the cylinders and the purging of combustion
gases in the exhaust pipes-are analyzed using fluid mechanics.

 The sleek streamlined shape of recent model cars is the result of

effort to minimize drag by using extensive analysis of flow over
surfaces
 Applications of Fluid Mechanics
Civil Engineering
 Fluid mechanics is also considered in the design of
buildings and bridges to make sure that the structures
can withstand wind loading.
 Other applications include the design and analysis of
boats, submarines and wind turbines, etc.

Read up history of fluid mechanics

 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Any characteristic of a System is known as its PROPERTY.

e.g. Pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature (T) and mass (m), etc.
also Viscosity (μ), Electric Resistance (R), Thermal Conductivity (k), etc.

Intensive : Independent on mass of system.

- e.g. Temperature (T), Pressure (P), Density (ρ), etc.

Extensive : Dependent on mass of system.

- e.g. Mass (m), Volume (V), etc.

Specific : Extensive properties per unit mass (intensive properties).

- e.g. Sp. Vol (v=V/m), Sp. Enthalpy (h=H/m), etc.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• Intensive vs Extensive Properties

a set of properties that completely describes the condition of a system not undergoing
any change is known as the state of that system.

State postulate: The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by

two independent, intensive properties.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
1. DENSITY
– Mass Density. Simply known as density (or specific
mass):

For a differential volume element of mass dm & volume dV,

density can be expressed as r = dm/dV

– Weight density: Also known as specific weight:

𝑊
=𝜌 ∙ 𝑔 ( 𝑁 / 𝑚 )
3
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡 , 𝛾 𝑠=
𝑉

– Specific Volume:
𝑉
=𝜌 ( 𝑚 / 𝑘𝑔 )
−1 3
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 , 𝜈=
𝑚
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
2. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (RELATIVE DENSITY)

For liquids:
𝜌 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦=
𝜌𝐻 𝑂 2

For gases:
𝜌 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦=
𝜌 𝑎𝑖𝑟
 EXAMPLE
1.) Calculate the specific weight, specific mass,
specific volume and specific gravity of a liquid
having a volume of 6m3 and weight of 44KN.
 SOLUTION
Volume of the liquid = 6 m3
Weight of the liquid = 44 kN

Specific weight ϒ =

Specific mass or mass density,

Specific volume,

Specific gravity S.G =

 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
– Density of ideal gases:
• ideal-gas equation of state

Pv = RsT or P = 𝜌RsT

where the constant of proportionality Rs is called the gas constant,

P is the absolute pressure, T is the absolute temperature, v is the
specific volume and 𝜌 is the density.
The gas constant Rs is different for each gas and is determined
from:
𝑅𝑢
𝑅 𝑠=
𝑀
where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar mass
(also called molecular weight) of the gas.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
– Density of ideal gases:
• ideal-gas equation of state

The constant Ru is the same for all substances, and its value is:

Rs, kJ/kg·K

Ru

Gas constants of different substances

 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
– Density of ideal gases:
• ideal-gas equation of state

A gas that obeys this relation is called an ideal gas.

For an ideal gas of volume V, mass m, and number of moles N =
m/M, the ideal-gas equation of state can also be written as:

PV = mRT or PV = NRuT

For a fixed mass m, writing the ideal-gas relation twice and

simplifying, the properties of an ideal gas at two different states are
related to each other by:

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
– Density of ideal gases:
• ideal-gas equation of state
An ideal gas is a hypothetical substance.
Real gases behave like ideal-gases at low densities (at low pressures
and high temperatures, the density of a gas decreases). Many
familiar gases such as air, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon,
neon, and krypton and even heavier gases such as carbon dioxide
can be treated as ideal gases with negligible error (often less than
1%) in real life practical cases.
However, dense gases such as water vapor in steam power plants
and refrigerant vapor in refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat
pumps, however, should not be treated as ideal gases since they
usually exist at a state near saturation
 EXAMPLES
• For oxygen which has a molar mass of 32 g/mol,
the gas constant is ??

• The pressure and temperature of carbon dioxide in

a vessel are 600KN/m2 abs. and 300C respectively.
Find the mass density, specific weight and specific
volume.
 SOLUTION
1)

2) Knowing that PV = mRsT .......1

i. To find density, ρ, rewrite and rearrange eqn 1

40
 SOLUTION
2) ...continued
ii.
≅ 103 N/m3

iii.
≅ 0.0952 m3/kg

41
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
3. VISCOSITY
• It is the property of a fluid which determines its
resistance to shearing stresses.
• It measures the internal fluid friction which causes
resistance to flow.
• Viscosity of fluids is due to cohesion and
interaction between particles of fluid layers.
• Viscosity may be expressed as
– Dynamic viscosity
– Kinematic viscosity
42
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• Dynamic viscosity, μ, is the constant of
proportionality in Newton’s law of viscosity

• μ is a measure of the internal resistance to

flow of a fluid due to an external force.
• SI unit: kg/(m.s), or Pa.s (derived form)
• CGS unit: poise (g/cm.s)
– 1 poise is 0.1Pa.s ; 1 centipoise (cp) is 0.01poise.
43
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• Kinematic viscosity is a measure of the
internal resistance to flow of a fluid due to
gravitational force alone
Dynamic viscosity
Kinematic viscosity
Density

• SI unit: m2/s
• CGS unit: stoke (cm2/s)
– 1 stoke is 10-4 m2/s; 1centistoke (cst) is 0.01
stoke.
44
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

45
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

46
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
– Their behaviour deviates from Newtonian fluid
behaviour
– They include
• Bingham Plastics
– Fluids for which the shear stress must reach a certain minimum
value (yield stress) before flow commences. Thereafter, shear
stress increases with the rate of shear according to the
relationship
flow behaviour index
yield stress
n=1 for a Bingham plastic.
Examples : sewage sludge,
toothpaste, drilling mud, molten
apparent viscosity chocolate, mayonnaise, asphalt.
47
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
– Pseudoplastic, for which
dynamic viscosity decreases
as the rate of shear increases
(aka shear-thinning).
Examples include: paint,
colloidal solutions, clay, milk,
cement.

n < 1 for pseudoplastic fluids

48
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
– Dilatant substances, in
which dynamic viscosity
increases as the rate of
shear increases (aka shear
thickening). Examples
include: Quicksand,
gelatin.
The faster he tries to move,
the more viscous (thick) the
n > 1 for dilatant fluids fluid becomes

49
 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON VISCOSITY

• Viscosity is affected by temperature

– The viscosity of liquids decrease but that of gases
increases with increase in temperature.
• This is due to the reason that in liquids the shear is due
to the inter-molecular cohesion which decreases with
increase of temperature.
• In gases, the inter-molecular cohesion is negligible and
the shear stress is due to exchange of momentum of
the molecules, normal to the direction of motion. This
molecular activity increases with rise in temperature
and so does viscosity of gas.
50
 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON VISCOSITY

• Viscosity is affected by temperature

– The viscosity of liquids
decrease but that of
gases increases with
increase in temperature.
Liquids:

Gases:

Viscosity of liquids decreases and the viscosity

of gases increases with temperature.

51
 EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON VISCOSITY
• The viscosity under ordinary conditions is not
appreciably affected by the change in pressure.
• However, the viscosity of some oils has been
found to increase with increase in pressure.

52
 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT
• Rotational viscometer:

𝓁
Bob R

For shear stress at a

Cup
Newtonian fluid layer:

Plan view schematic

Rotational viscometer
(Cup and bob viscometer)

Note: T = Torque, 𝜏 = shear stress, A = surface area, R = radius, μ = dynamic

viscosity, du/dy = rate of shear strain (shear rate).
53
 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT
• Rotational viscometer:
For shear stress at a the bob surface

h
h

Note: V = tangential velocity of bob, 𝜔 = angular velocity, h = height of bob, 𝓁 = gap

between cup & bob, ṅ = rate of revolution

54
 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT
• Other viscometers:
When ball attains terminal velocity (equilibrium)

𝑤 − 𝐹 𝑏 − 𝐹 𝐷=0 eqn 1

𝑤=𝛾 𝑠 𝑉 =𝛾 𝑠 𝜋 𝐷3 / 6 eqn 2
𝐹 𝑏=𝛾 𝑓 𝑉 =𝛾 𝑓 𝜋 𝐷 3 / 6 eqn 3

𝐹 𝑑=3 𝜋𝜇 𝑣⃗ 𝐷 eqn 4

Eqn 1 becomes:

(a) Falling-ball (b) Ball in falling-ball ( 𝛾𝑠 −𝛾 𝑓 ) 𝐷 2

𝜇= eqn 5
viscometer viscometer 18 ⃗
𝑣
55
 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT
• Other viscometers:

Capillary-tube viscometer

56
 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT
• Other viscometers:

Upper timing mark

Bulb

Lower timing mark

U-tube viscometers
a) Cannon Fenske routine viscometer
b) Ubbelohde viscometer

(a) (b) 57
 VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT
• Other viscometers:

(a) Saybolt viscometers

(b) Kinematic viscosity in SUS versus n in mm2/s at 100oF.
58
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

• VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION

– Vapour pressure Pv of a pure substance is defined as
the pressure exerted by its vapour in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature.
– Pv is a property of the
pure substance, and
identical to the
saturation pressure Psat
of the liquid (Pv = Psat).
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION:
– Note, vapour pressure different from partial pressure.
– Partial pressure is defined as the pressure of a gas or
vapour in a mixture with other gases.
– Pi ≤ Pv if there is no liquid present.
– If vapour and liquid are present and the system is in
phase equilibrium, then Pi = Pv, and the system is said to
be saturated.
– The rate of evaporation from open water bodies such as
lakes is controlled by the difference between the vapour
pressure and the partial pressure.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION:
– For phase-change processes between the liquid and
vapour phases of a pure substance, the saturation
pressure and the vapour pressure are equivalent
since the vapour is pure.
– Note that the pressure value would be the same
whether it is measured in the vapour or liquid
phase, as long as this done at a location close to the
liquid–vapour interface to avoid any hydrostatic
effects.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION:
– Vapour pressure increases with
temperature. Thus, a substance
at higher pressure boils at higher
temperature.
– For instance, water boils at 134°C
in a pressure cooker operating at
3 atm absolute pressure, but it
boils at 93°C in an ordinary pan
at a 2000-m elevation, where the
atmospheric pressure is 0.8 atm.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION:
– There is the possibility of the liquid pressure in
liquid-flow systems dropping below the vapor
pressure at some locations, resulting unplanned
vaporization
– This phenomenon is known as cavitation and is the
main reason behind the interest in vapour pressure.
– For example, water at 10°C may vaporize and form
bubbles at locations (such as the tip regions of
impellers or suction sides of pumps) where the
pressure drops below 1.23 kPa.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION:
– The vapor bubbles (called cavitation bubbles since
they form “cavities” in the liquid) collapse as they
are swept away from the low-pressure regions,
generating highly destructive, extremely high-
pressure waves.
– Cavitation is a common cause for drop in
performance and even the erosion of impeller
blades, is an important design consideration in the
fabrication of hydraulic turbines and pumps.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION:
– Cavitation must be avoided (or at least minimized)
in most flow systems since it:
• Reduces performance,
• Generates annoying vibrations and noise, and
• Causes damage to equipment.
– However, some flow systems use cavitation to their
advantage, e.g., high-speed “supercavitating”
torpedoes.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION:

Pitting cavitation damage on a propeller

 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION:
– The pressure spikes resulting from the large
number of bubbles collapsing near a solid surface
over a long period of time may cause
• Erosion,
• Surface pitting,
• Fatigue failure
• Eventual destruction of the components or machinery.
– The presence of cavitation in a flow system can be
sensed by its characteristic tumbling sound.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY

Paper clip on water Insect on water

 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
– Surface tension, σ, is the tensile force per unit
length required to separate the molecules of a
liquid at the surface

Resultant force is
vertically downward

Resultant force Surface tension is the force per unit length

is zero needed to separate the molecules on the surface
(a) (b)
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
– Effect of temperature on surface tension
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
– Work required to break surface tension
– Energy produced by this work is known as free-surface
energy
– Thus consider a small element of the surface subjected
to the surface tension force

𝐹 𝛿𝑥 𝜎∆ 𝑦 𝛿𝑥
= =𝜎
∆ 𝑦 𝛿𝑥 ∆ 𝑦 𝛿𝑥
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
– Formation of liquid droplets due to cohesion
which minimizes its shape to form a sphere.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
– To determine the pressure that cohesion causes
within a droplet (from known σ)
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
– Capillarity of a liquid depends on the comparison
the forces of adhesion and cohesion:
Convex
Concave
meniscus
meniscus
Wetting liquid nonwetting liquid

Force of adhesion > Force of cohesion Force of adhesion < Force of cohesion
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
– Capillary action in a wetting and nonwetting liquids:

Wetting liquid Nonwetting liquid

 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
– To determining the height, h, of a wetting liquid that has
risen up a narrow tube & is in equilibrium:

Free-body diagram of the

portion of a wetting liquid
suspended in a tube
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– The volume (or density) of fluids are known to
change with a change in its temperature or
pressure.
– Fluids usually expand when heated or
depressurized and contract as they are cooled or
pressurized.
– However, the amount of volume change differ for
different fluids.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Two properties relate volume changes to the
changes in pressure and temperature:
• coefficient of compressibility κ
• coefficient of volume expansion β.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of compressibility κ:
• Like elastic solids, a fluid contracts or expands when the
pressure acting on it is increased or reduced, respectively
• This compressibility behaviour in response to pressure is
quantified by coefficient of compressibility κ (aka bulk
modulus of compressibility or bulk modulus of elasticity)
Note:
..........eqn 5.1 the − sign & the
denominators in
the 2 expressions
for κ. What do
..........eqn 5.2 they show?
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of compressibility κ:

• Incompressible fluids have large

κ values. Why?
o a large change in pressure is
needed to cause a small
fractional change in volume
(or density)
incompressible fluid
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of compressibility κ:
• In piping systems
incompressibility of liquids
can lead to an interesting
phenomena known as the
water hammer.
• This occurs when a liquid in
a piping network encounters
an abrupt flow restriction
(such as a closing valve) and
is locally compressed
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of compressibility κ:
• The resulting sound resembles that produced when a
pipe is “hammered”.
• The effect can be suppressed with a water hammer
arrestor, a volumetric chamber containing either a
bellows or piston to absorb the shock.
• For large pipes, a vertical tube, with a free air surface at
the top, called a surge tower often is used.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of compressibility κ:

Water hammer arrestor Surge tower

 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of compressibility κ:
• For an ideal gas, P = ρRT & (∂P/∂ρ)T = RT = P/ρ, and thus

κideal gas = P (Pa) .......... eqn 5.3

• Since the coefficient of compressibility of an ideal gas is

equal to its absolute pressure, it also increases with
increasing pressure.
• Thus substituting κ = P into eqn. 5.2 & rearranging gives:
.......... eqn 5.4
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of compressibility κ:
• The inverse of the coefficient of compressibility is called
the isothermal compressibility α and is expressed as

.......... eqn 5.5

• The isothermal compressibility of a fluid represents the

fractional change in volume or density corresponding to
a unit change in pressure.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of Volume Expansion
• Fluid density generally, depend more
strongly on temperature than pressure.
• The coefficient of volume expansion (or
volume expansivity) quantifies these
effects of fluid density variation with
temperature at constant pressure.

Natural convection over

a woman’s hand.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of Volume Expansion:

..........eqn 5.6

..........eqn 5.7

⇒ βΔT ≈ Δv/v (fraction of volume change of a fluid that

corresponds to a temperature change of
ΔT at constant pressure)
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of Volume Expansion:

(a) A substance with a large β (b) A substance with a small β

(large Δ𝜌) (small Δ𝜌)

The coefficient of volume expansion is a measure of the change in volume of a

substance with temperature at constant pressure.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of Volume Expansion:
• It can be shown that the volume expansion coefficient of
an ideal gas (P = 𝜌RT) at a temperature T is equivalent
to the inverse of the temperature:

..........eqn 5.8
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of Volume Expansion:
• In fluids undergoing natural convection currents:

..........eqn 5.9

where ρ∞ is the density and T∞ is the temperature of the quiescent fluid at a

distance away from the confined hot or cold fluid pocket where its presence
is not felt.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of Volume Expansion:
• The combined effects of pressure and temperature changes
on the volume change of a fluid can be determined by
taking the specific volume to be a function of T and P.
• Differentiating v = v(T, P) and using the definitions of the
compression and expansion coefficients a and b give:

.....eqn 5.10a and

But and ∴ dv .....eqn 5.10b

 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Coefficient of Volume Expansion:
• The fractional change in volume (or density) as a result of
changes in pressure and temperature can be expressed
approximately as :

..........eqn 5.11
 EXAMPLE
• Consider water initially at 200C and 1atm. Determine the final
density of the water (a) if it is heated to 500C at a constant
pressure of 1 atm, and (b) if it is compressed to 100 atm
pressure at a constant temperature of 200C. Take the
isothermal compressibility of water to be α = 4.80x10-5 atm-1,
coefficient of volume expansion at the average temperature
to be β = 0.337x10-3K-1, density of water at 20oC = 998 kg/m3.

ANS:
(a) 988.0Kg/m3 (b) 1002.7Kg/m3
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Speed of Sound and Mach Number:
• The speed of sound (or the sonic speed), is an important
parameter in the study of compressible flow
• It is defined as the speed at which an infinitesimally
small pressure wave travels through a medium.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Speed of Sound and Mach Number:
• From thermodynamics, the speed of sound in a medium
is given by the relations:

..........eqn 5.12

where k = cp /cv is the specific heat ratio of the fluid.

Note that the speed of sound in a fluid is a function of the thermodynamic
properties of that fluid.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Speed of Sound and Mach Number :
• The speed of sound, c, in air
increases with temperature.
• At typical outside temperatures, c
is about 340 m/s.
• Thus for a lightening strike, the
sound of thunder that follows
travels about 1 km in 3 seconds.
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Speed of Sound and Mach Number :
• When the fluid is an ideal gas (P = ρRT), the
differentiation in Eq. 5.10 can be performed to yield

..........eqn 5.13a

or
..........eqn 5.13b

Note: the gas constant, R, has a fixed value for a specified ideal gas and the
specific heat ratio k of an ideal gas is a function of temperature; thus the
speed of sound in a specified ideal gas is a function of temperature alone
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Speed of Sound and Mach Number :
• The speed of sound changes
with temperature and varies
with the fluid
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Speed of Sound and Mach Number :
• The Mach number Ma, is another important parameter
in the analysis of compressible fluid flow.
• It is It is the ratio of the actual speed of the fluid (or an
object in still fluid), V, to the speed of sound, c, in the
same fluid at the same state:

..........eqn 5.14
 Introduction and Basic Concepts
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
• COMPRESSIBILITY AND SPEED OF SOUND :
– Speed of Sound and Mach Number :
• Note that the Mach number
depends on the speed of
sound, which depends on
the state of the fluid.
• Thus, the Mach number of
an aircraft cruising at constant velocity in still air may be
different at different locations.
• Fluid flow regimes are often described in terms of the flow
Mach number; sonic (Ma = 1), subsonic (Ma < 1), supersonic
(Ma > 1), hypersonic (Ma > 5), & transonic (0.9 ≤ Ma ≤ 1.2).
 EXAMPLES
• Air enters a diffuser with a speed of 200m/s. Determine
a) The speed of sound
b) The Mach number at the diffuser inlet when the air
temperature is 30 oC.
The gas constant of air is R = 0.287 kJ/kg. K and its specific
ratio at 30 oC is 1.4.

ANS: (a) 349m/s (b) 0.573

 INTRODUCTION TO FLUID STATICS
• Fluid statics: Deals with problems associated
with fluids at rest. The fluid can be either
gaseous or liquid.
– Hydrostatics: When the fluid is a liquid.
– Aerostatics: When the fluid is a gas.
• In fluid statics, no shear (tangential) stresses
in the fluid, just normal stress (pressure)
• Application of fluid statics can be found in
the design of engineering systems such as
water dams and liquid storage tanks
 PRESSURE
• Pressure (P) is a normal force (F) exerted by a
fluid per unit area (A).

• Unit: Newtons per square meter (N/m2), aka

Pascal (Pa)
– 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa
 PRESSURE
• Other pressure units include:
– 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
– 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars
– 1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 9.807 × 104 N/m2
= 9.807 × 104 Pa
= 0.9807 bar
= 0.9679 atm
• In the English system, the pressure unit is pound-
force per square inch (lbf/in, or psi):
– 1 atm = 14.696 psi; 1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi.
 PRESSURE
• Pressure is usually expressed as:
– Absolute pressure: actual pressure of a place,
measured with respect to the zero pressure of a
complete vacuum.
– Gauge pressure:
Pgauge = Pabs − Patm. 6.1
– Vacuum pressure:
Pvac = − Pgauge.
= −(Pabs − Patm)
= Patm − Pabs 6.2
Fig 6.1: Pressure gauges
 PRESSURE

Fig 6.2a: Normal Pressure gauge Fig 6.2b: Vacuum Pressure gauge
 PRESSURE

Pgauge = Pabs − Patm. 6.1

Pvac = Patm − Pabs. 6.2

Fig 6.3: Absolute, gauge and vacuum Pressures.

 PRESSURE
• Pressure at a Point
– Pressure on an object due to compressive force per
unit area:
F

(a) (b) F
Fig 6.4 Pressure in (a) liquids is a scalar quantity in in (b) solids is a
vector
 PRESSURE
• Pressure at a Point
– Consider a small wedge-shaped fluid element of unit
length (Δy = 1 into the page) in equilibrium

Fs = P3 Δ𝑦Δ𝑙

Δ𝑙
F𝑥 = P1Δ𝑦Δ𝑧

Δ𝑧 x
Δ𝑦
Δ𝑥
F𝑧 = P2Δ𝑥Δ𝑦
y
Fig 6.5: Forces on an arbitrary wedge-shaped fluid element
 PRESSURE
• Pressure at a Point
– Mean pressures at the 3 surfaces are:
• P1, P2, and P3,
– Forces acting on the 3 surface are:
• F𝑥 = P1⋅Δ𝑦⋅Δ𝑧 6.3a
• Fs = P3⋅Δ𝑦⋅𝑙 6.3b
• F𝑧 = P2⋅Δ𝑥⋅Δ𝑦 6.3c
– From Newton’s 2nd law, a force balance in the 𝑥- & z-
directions gives:
6.4

6.5
where 𝜌 is the density and W is
the weight of the fluid element
 PRESSURE
• Pressure at a Point
– Since the wedge is a right triangle:
Δ𝑥 = 𝑙 cos 𝜃 6.6a
and
Δ𝑧 = 𝑙 sin 𝜃 6.6b
– Substituting these geometric relations and dividing
Eq. 6.4 by Δ𝑦 Δ𝑧 and Eq. 6.5 by Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦 gives
6.7

6.8
 PRESSURE
• Pressure at a Point
– As Δ𝑧 → 0 in Eqn. and the wedge becomes
infinitesimal, and thus the fluid element shrinks to a
point.
– Combining the results of these two relations gives
6.9

– Thus the pressure at a point in a fluid (in motion or

at rest) has the same magnitude in all directions.
 PRESSURE
• Variation of Pressure with Depth
– In a fluid at rest, pressure is
constant in the horizontal
direction but increases with
depth in the vertical direction
– This can be shown by doing a
force balance on a rectangular
fluid element of density 𝜌,
height Δ𝑧, length Δ𝑥, and unit Fig 6.6 The pressure of a
fluid at rest increases with
depth (Δ𝑦 = 1 into the page) in depth due to added weight).
equilibrium, as shown in Fig. 6.7.
 PRESSURE
• Variation of Pressure with Depth

6.10

Where Δ𝑧 = 𝑧2 - 𝑧1

Dividing Eq 6.10 by Dx Dy and rearranging gives

6.11
Fig 6.7: Free-body diagram of where 𝛾s = 𝜌g is the specific weight of the fluid
a rectangular fluid element in
equilibrium OR
6.12
 PRESSURE
• Variation of Pressure with Depth
– For a given column of fluid of specific weight:
• 𝛥𝑧 is sometimes used as a measure of pressure between
2 points, 𝛥𝛲 (6.11 & 6.12).
• This is known as the pressure head in such cases.

or 6.13

For instance, a pressure difference of 10 psi can be specified

in terms of pressure head as 23.1 ft of water (𝛾 = 62.4
lb/ft3) or 518 mm of Hg (𝛾 = 133 kN/m3). As illustrated, a
23.1-ft column of water with a cross-sectional area of 1 in.2
weighs 10 lb.

Fig 6.8: Pressure difference between 2 point in a column of water

 PRESSURE
• Variation of Pressure with Depth
– For a given column of fluid of specific weight:
• The pressure difference of 10 psi was determined to be
23.1 ft of water (𝛾w = 62.4 lb/ft3) or 518 mm of Hg (𝛾m =
133 kN/m3) in terms of pressure head as follows:
Using eqn 6.13

or
∆𝑃 10 𝑙𝑏 𝑓 /𝑖𝑛 2 1 01. 3 𝑘𝑁 / 𝑚 3 1000 𝑚𝑚
∆ 𝑧= = × × =𝟓𝟏𝟖 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈
𝛾𝑚 133 𝑘𝑁 / 𝑚3 1 4.7 𝑙𝑏 𝑓 / 𝑖𝑛
2
1 𝑚

Fig 6.8: Pressure difference between 2 point in a column of water

 PRESSURE
• Variation of Pressure with Depth
– For gases:
• ΔP≈0 in eq. 6.11 for small to
moderate Δz due to their low
densities
• ∴ the pressure in a room
filled with air can be
approximated as a constant
(Fig. 6.9).

Fig 6.9 : In a room filled with a

gas, the variation of pressure
with height is negligible.
 PRESSURE
• Variation of Pressure with Depth
– For liquids open to the atmosphere:
• Eq 6.12 becomes:
6.14
Where Patm ≡ Pabove & P ≡ Pbelow in eq. 6.12

– For fluids that undergo significant

density changes with elevation:
Fig 6.10: Pressure
in a liquid at rest
6.15 increases linearly
with distance from
the free surface.
 PRESSURE
• Variation of Pressure with Depth
– Δ𝛲 between any two points, 1 and 2 when the
variation of density with elevation is known can be
determined by integration to be:

6.16
 PRESSURE
• Variation of Pressure with Depth
– Pressure in a fluid Liquid surface
(Pabove = Patm)
at rest is
independent of
the shape or cross
section of the
container.

Fig 6.11: Fluid pressure in

containers of arbitrary shape.

Specific weight, 𝛾
 PRESSURE
• Variation of Pressure with Depth
– Thus the pressure is the same at all points on a
horizontal plane in a given fluid.
– Consequently the pressure applied to a confined
fluid increases the pressure throughout by the
same amount (Pascal’s law).
– Hydraulic devices such as jacks work on the
principle of Pascal’s law and the proportionality
between the force surface area

6.17
 Pressure
• Variation of Pressure with Depth

Fig 6.12: a) Transmission of fluid pressure b) Hydraulic jack

 Pressure
• Variation of Pressure with Depth
If the pistons of the hydraulic jack
in Fig A.3 have an area of A1 = 0.8
cm2 and A2 = 0.04 m2, and the
hydraulic oil has a specific gravity
of 0.870, calculate the force F1 in
required to lift a car of weight
13,000 N by two metres (h = 2 m)
 Pressure
• Variation of Pressure with Depth

P1 P2
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Barometer
Mercury vapour, Pvapour
– Measures atmospheric pressure
– 1 std. atm. produces 760 mm of
Hg (@ 0°C & g = 9.807 m/s2)
– Thus pressure expressed in h
terms of mercury column height
– ∴ 1 atm = 760 mmHg
– 1 mmHg = 1 torr = 133.3 Pa
Fig 7.1: Barometer
Patm = Pvap + ρgh ≈ ρgh

125
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Barometer
– The length or the cross-
sectional area of the tube has
no effect on the height of the
fluid column of a barometer,
provided that the tube
diameter is large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects.
Fig 7.2: Effect of tube length &
cross-sectional area on fluid
column height
126
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Barometer
– Patm ↓with elevation
from sea level
Table 7.1: ∆Patm with
elevation
Elevation (km) Patm (kPa)
0 (sea level) 101.3
1 89.9
2 79.5
5 54.1
10 26.5
20 5.5
Fig 7.3: ∆Patm with altitude
127
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Barometer
– The decline of atmospheric Cooking Time
Adjustments

pressure with elevation has + 40%

far-reaching ramifications + 30%

in daily life.
+ 20%
• Longer cooking times due to
lower boiling temperature & + 10%

Patm at higher altitudes. +5%

• Nose bleeding at high Normal
altitudes due to ↑ 𝛥𝛲 btw Cooking
time
the blood pressure and the
Fig 7.4: Effect of ∆Patm with altitude
Patm in this case.
128
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Barometer
– The decline of atmospheric pressure with elevation
has far-reaching ramifications in daily life.
• For a given temperature,
breathing is harder
(exhaustion quicker) at
higher altitudes due to
lower air density of air.
• Car engines operate at
lower capacity and Fig 7.5
efficiency at higher altitudes
due to lower air pressure
and density
129
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Barometer
– Solved Example
• Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where
the barometric reading is 740 mmHg and the
gravitational acceleration is g = 9.805 m/s2. Assume the
temperature of mercury to be 10°C, at which its density
is 13,570 kg/m3. ANS: 98.5KPa

130
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Barometer
– Solved Example
• Intravenous infusions usually are driven by gravity by
hanging the fluid bottle at sufficient height to counteract
the blood pressure in the vein and to force the fluid into
the body. The higher the bottle is raised, the higher the
flow rate of the fluid will be. Given that the density of
the fluid is 1020 kg/m3
(a) Determine the gauge pressure of the blood if it is observed
that the fluid & the blood pressures balance each other
when the bottle is 1.2 m above the arm level.
(b) Determine how high the bottle must be placed if the gauge
pressure of the fluid at the arm level needs to be 20 kPa for
sufficient flow rate. 131
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Barometer
– Solved Example
(a) Since the IV fluid and the blood
pressures balance each other
when the bottle is 1.2 m above the
arm level, the gauge pressure of
the blood in the arm is simply
equal to the gauge pressure of the
IV fluid at a depth of 1.2 m:

132
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Barometer
– Solved Example

133
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Manometer
– It is commonly used to
measure small and
moderate pressure
differences.
– They are devices that
h
use columns of liquids
to measure pressures.
– One or more fluids e.g.,
mercury, water, alcohol,
or oil may be used.
Fig 7.6: Manometer Pabs = Patm + ρgh
134
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Manometer
– Where multiple immiscible fluids of different
densities are involved, consider that:
• ∆P = ρgh,
• Pbottom > Ptop
• Two points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid at
rest are at the same pressure.
– Types of manometers
• Piezometer
• U-tube manometer
• Differential manometer
• Inclined manometer 135
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Manometer
– Procedure for measuring pressure in a manometer
1. Begin at one end of the manometer system and write
the pressure in symbol form (e.g., PA).
2. Using ΔP = 𝜌gh (𝛾h), write expressions for the
changes in pressure that occur from the starting point
to the end point of the manometer system, being
careful to include the correct algebraic sign for each
term.
3. Equate the expression from Step 2 to the pressure at
the final point.
4. Substitute known values and solve for the desired
pressure.
136
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Manometer
– Piezometer
• Simple and accurate
• Consists of a tube
inserted into the
vessel/pipe containing
liquid under pressure. PA = 𝜌gh1
• Suitable for low to
moderate pressures PB = 𝜌gh2
(greater than Patm)
• Commonly applied in
groundwater pressure
measurement Fig7.7: Pressure tube or Piezometer
137
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Manometer
– U-tube manometer
• Consists of a glass In stacked-up fluid
or plastic U-tube layers at rest, the
pressure change across
each fluid layer of
density ρ and height h
is ρgh.

In the special case of all fluids having the same

density, the relation above reduces to:

138
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Manometer
– Differential manometer
• Measuring the pressure drop across a flow section or a
flow device by a differential manometer.

139
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Manometer
– Inclined manometer
• Measures small pressure changes
• One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle θ and
the differential reading 𝑙 is measured along the inclined
tube.

Pressure difference between PA & PB

or

140
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
1. A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi
at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 14.5
psi. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.
2. A manometer is used to measure
the pressure of a gas in a tank.
The fluid used has a specific
gravity of 0.85, and the
manometer column height is 55
cm, as shown in the diagram. If
the local atmospheric pressure is
96 kPa, determine the absolute
pressure within the tank.
141
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
3. In the diagram below:
a) Determine the pressure difference between pipes A & B if
the fluid in A has a specific gravity of 0.9. Take g = 9.81
m/s2 and the densities of water and mercury to be 1000
kg/m3 and 13600 kg/m3.
b) If the pressure in pipe A is decreased 10 kPa and the
pressure in pipe B remains unchanged, determine the new
differential reading along the inclined leg of the mercury
manometer. (Assignment due in class).

142
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
3. Solution:
a) Starting from pressure at point A
(PA) & working round to pressure at
point B (PB) bearing in mind these 3
concepts:
i. Pressure change across a fluid column of height h is ∆P = ρgh
ii. Pressure increases downwards & decreases upward in a given
fluid column (Pbottom > Ptop)
iii. 2 points at the same elevation in a continuous fluid at rest are at
the pressure
Thus if ρA = density of fluid in pipe A = 0.9 ⨯1000kg/m3 = 900 kg/m3
ρm = density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3
ρw = density of water = 1000 kg/m3
Then:
PA + ρAghA + ρmghm – ρwghw = PB 143
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
3. Solution:
But hm is unknown, however it can
be found using trig. ratio at the
inclined section of the manometer
50
m m
hm
30
o

∴PA + g(ρAhA + ρmhm – ρwhw) = PB

⇒ PA – PB = -g(ρAhA + ρmhm – ρwhw)
= -9.81m/s2[(900kg/m3 ⨯ 0.1m) + (13600kg/m3⨯ 0.025m)
– (1000kg/m3⨯ 0.08m)]
∴ PA – PB = - 3433.5 Pa ≅ - 3430 Pa = - 3.43 kPa
144
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Other pressure
measurement devices
– Bourdon tube:
• A hollow metal tube bent like
a hook with a closed end that
is attached to a dial indicator
needle.
– Pressure transducers:
• Converts a pressure effect to
an electrical effect using
various techniques such as Various types of
Bourdon tubes
change in voltage, resistance, used to measure
or capacitance. pressure. 145
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Other pressure measurement devices
– Pressure transducers:
• Strain-gauge pressure transducers:
– Work by having a diaphragm deflect between two chambers
open to the pressure inputs.
• Piezoelectric transducers:
– Also called solid-state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated in a crystalline
substance when it is subjected to mechanical pressure.

146
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
• Other pressure measurement devices
• A deadweight tester is used 1oly for
calibration and measures pressure
directly through application of a
weight that provides a force per
unit area (i.e. pressure).
• It is constructed with an internal
chamber filled with a fluid (usually
Deadweight tester measures oil), along with a tight-fitting
extremely high pressures (up to piston, cylinder, & plunger.
10,000 psi in some applications). • Weights are applied to the top
of the piston, which exerts a force on the oil in the chamber.
• The total force F acting on the oil at the piston–oil interface is
the sum of the weight of the piston plus the applied weights. 147
 Fluid Dynamics
• Fluid dynamics is the science that deals with the
behaviour of fluids in motion:
–Hydrodynamics‐ the motion of fluids that can be approximated
as incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and gases
at low speeds).
•Hydraulics‐ A branch of hydrodynamics that deals with liquid flows in
pipes and open channels. (Internal Flows)
–Aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over
bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low
speeds.
•Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant
density changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high
speeds.
 Fluid Dynamics
• Examples of Fluid flow
– Through a pipe, hose etc
– Over a car
– Past a rock
 Fluid Dynamics
No slip condition
• This is when a fluid in motion comes to a
complete stop at the surface and assumes a
zero velocity relative to the surface

A fluid flowing over a stationary

The development of a velocity surface comes to a complete stop at
profile due to the no-slip condition the surface because of the no-slip
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose. condition.
 Fluid Dynamics
No slip condition
• No slip condition leads to the development of:
– Velocity profile
– Boundary layer
– Surface (skin friction) drag
– Flow separation
– Wake
 Fluid Dynamics
No slip condition
• Velocity profile:
– The spatial variation in a velocity component or
vector through a region of a fluid flow.

Profile plots of the horizontal component of velocity as a function of vertical

distance: (a) standard profile plot and (b) profile plot with arrows.
 Fluid Dynamics
No slip condition
• Velocity profile:

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and

thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-
dimensional downstream when the velocity profile fully develops and
remains unchanged in the flow direction, V = V(r).
 Fluid Dynamics
No slip condition
• Boundary layer:
– The flow region adjacent to a boundary surface in
which the viscous effects (and thus the velocity
gradients) are significant
 Fluid Dynamics
No slip condition
• Surface (skin friction) drag:
– Force a fluid exerts on a surface in the flow
direction due to fluid shear stress at the surface.
 Fluid Dynamics
No slip condition
• Flow separation:
– The deviation or detachment of fluid particles next
to a body from its surface.
 Fluid Dynamics
No slip condition
• Wake:
– The region of separated flow behind a body.

Flow pattern around a sphere when

the Reynolds number is high. The
sketch shows the regions of flow.
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow :
– Viscous flow regions: Flow regions
that are close to a boundary
surface in which the frictional
effects are significant (boundary
layer).
The flow of an originally – Inviscid flow regions: flow regions
uniform fluid stream over a
flat plate, showing the that are away from and
regions of viscous flow (next unaffected by boundary surfaces.
to the plate on both sides)
and inviscid flow (away from
the plate).
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Internal versus External Flow
– Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or
duct.
• They are dominated by the influence of
viscosity throughout the flow field.
– External flow: The flow of an
unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
• Here, viscous effects are limited to
External flow over a tennis
boundary layers near solid surfaces & ball, & the turbulent wake
to wake regions downstream of bodies. region behind
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
– Incompressible flow: flow during which the fluid
density remains nearly constant throughout.
– Compressible flow: flow during which the fluid
density changes significantly.
• The flow of liquids is typically incompressible; their
densities are essentially constant compared to gases.
• For example, a pressure of 210 atm causes the density of
liquid water at 1 atm to change by just 1% while a
pressure change of just 0.01 atm causes the same 1%
change in the density of atmospheric air.
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
– Laminar flow: A stable well-ordered fluid motion
characterised by smooth layers of fluid.
• Flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities
– Turbulent flow: The highly disordered fluid motion
that typically occurs at high velocities and is
characterized by velocity fluctuations.
• Flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high velocities
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
– A flow that alternates between being laminar and
turbulent is called transitional.
– The Reynolds number, Re, is a dimensionless
parameter for the determination of the flow
regime in pipes, i.e., laminar, turbulent, or
transitional

ρ = density, V = velocity, L = characterised length, μ = dynamic viscosity

ν = kinematic viscosity
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
– Natural flow: when fluid motion is due to natural
means, e.g., the buoyancy effect which manifests
itself as the rise of warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus denser)
– Forced flow: when a fluid is forced to flow over a
surface or in a pipe by external means such as a
pump or a fan
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Steady versus Unsteady Flow
– Steady flow: a flow in which all fluid variables, e.g.
velocity, at all fixed points in the flow are constant
in time (but generally vary from place to place).
velocity is constant with time.

– Unsteady flow: a flow in which at least one variable

at a fixed point in the flow changes with time.
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
– Uniform flow: a flow in which the velocity at a given
instant is the same in magnitude and direction at
every point in the fluid.
• relatively high speed flow in a pipe section
• flow in a stream.

Uniform flow in pipes

 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
– Non-uniform flow: a flow in which the velocity
changes from point to point at a given instant.
• Converging duct flows
• Vortex flow

Flow patterns for non-uniform flow:

(a) Converging flow.
(b) Vortex flow.
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Rotational versus Irrotational Flow
– Rotational flow: A flow where the fluid particles
rotate about their mass centres while moving in the
direction of flow.
– Irrotational flow: A flow where the fluid particles do
not rotate about their mass centres while moving in
the direction of flow.
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Rotational versus Irrotational Flow

The difference between rotational and irrotational flow: fluid

elements in a rotational region of the flow rotate, but those in
an irrotational region of the flow do not
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• Rotational versus Irrotational Flow

Rotational flow Irrotational flow

 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
– In general, fluid flow depends on three spatial
dimensions namely
• 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 – for a rectangular coordinate system
• 𝑟, 𝜃, and 𝑧 – for a cylindrical coordinate system
� �
� �
θ r
z
z z

� �
� �
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
– Three-dimensional : A flow in which the velocity
varies in three spatial dimension.
• Flow in a converging or diverging pipe
• Flow in a prismatic open channel
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
– Two-dimensional : A flow in which the velocity
varies in only two spatial dimension.
• Flow between parallel plate of infinite distance
• Flow in the main stream of a wide river
 Fluid Dynamics
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
• One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
– One-dimensional flow: A flow in which the velocity
varies in only one spatial dimension.
• Flow through a circular pipe
Conservation of mass (continuity
equation)
 CONSERVATION LAWS
• Conservation laws: laws that govern changes in
the properties of mass, momentum, energy, and
entropy of a material in response to other
physical properties involving forces, work, and
heat transfer.
– Law of conservation of mass:
• matter is indestructible
– Law of conservation of energy:
• The total energy of an isolated system remains constant
– Law of conservation of momentum
• The momentum of a system remains constant if no external
forces are acting on the system (Newton’s 2nd law a
derivative).
 CONSERVATION LAWS
Conservation of mass:
• For a closed system (control mass), the mass of
the system remains constant during a process
 CONSERVATION LAWS
Conservation of mass:
• For an open system (control volume), the net
change in the total mass flow rate in and out of
the system is equal to the rate of change of
mass within the system
Where ṁin & ṁout are the total rates of mass flow
into and out of the control volume, respectively,
and is the rate of change of mass within the
control volume boundaries.
• The conservation of mass relation written for a
differential CV is aka continuity equation.
 CONSERVATION LAWS
The Linear Momentum Equation :
• Linear momentum, p, of a body is the product
of the mass and the velocity of that body
• Newton’s 2nd law states that
o
the acceleration of a body is
proportional to the net force
acting on it and is inversely
proportional to its mass.
• It is also states that the rate
of change of the momentum of a body is equal
to the net force acting on the body.
 CONSERVATION LAWS
The Linear Momentum Equation :

• Therefore, the momentum of a system remains

constant only when the net force acting on it is
zero, and thus the momentum of such systems is
conserved.
• This is known as the conservation of momentum
principle.
• Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the
linear momentum equation
 CONSERVATION LAWS
Conservation of Energy :
• Energy can be transferred to or from a closed
system by heat or work.
• The conservation of energy principle requires
that the net energy transfer to or from a system
during a process be equal to the change in the
energy content of the system.
• For CV energy transfer also involves mass flow
 CONSERVATION LAWS
Conservation of Energy :
• The conservation of energy principle, also called
the energy balance, is expressed as:

• In fluid mechanics consideration is limited to

only mechanical forms of energy
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
(Closed system)

(Open system/Control
Volume)

• However, mass (m) and energy (E) can be

converted to each other according to Albert
Einstein’s (1879–1955) theory of relativity:
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
• All physical & chemical systems exhibit energy
interactions with their surroundings
• However, the amount of energy involved is
equivalent to an extremely small mass
compared to the system’s total mass.
– E.g. 1 kg of liq. water formed from O2 & H2 at
normal atmospheric conditions releases 15.8 MJ of
energy ≘ 1.76 × 10-10 kg of energy.
– But in nuclear reactions, the mass equivalence of
the amount of energy interacted is a significant
fraction of the total mass involved.
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
• Mass and Volume Flow Rates:
– Mass flow rate ṁ, is the amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per unit time.
– A fluid flows into or out of a control volume, usually
through pipes or ducts.
– The differential mass flow rate of fluid flowing across
a small area element dAc in a cross section of a pipe
is proportional to:
• dAc
• the fluid density 𝜌
• Normal velocity Vn, the component of the flow velocity
normal to dAc
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
• Mass and Volume Flow Rates:
dAc
(orange ring)
Vn
(perpendicular
to the page)

• Note that both 𝛿 and d are used to indicate

differential quantities, but are used differently
– 𝛿 is typically used for quantities (such as heat,
work, and mass transfer) that are path functions
and have inexact differentials
– d is used for quantities (such as properties) that
are point functions and have exact differentials.
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
• Mass and Volume Flow Rates:
– This can be illustrated by considering flow through
an annulus (the space btw two pipes, one inside the
other):
• Cross-sectional area of annulus
(point function/exact differential)
r2
r1
• Mass flow rate through annulus
(path function/inexact differential)

where ṁtotal is total mass flow rate through the annulus, r1 and r2 are the
inner and outer radius of the annulus; 𝛿ṁ ≠ ṁ2 – ṁ1
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
• Mass and Volume Flow Rates:
– Mass flow rate through the entire cross-sectional
area of a pipe:

– However, in many practical

applications, velocity (Vn) is not
uniform due to the no-slip Average velocity Vavg is the average
condition at the walls speed through a cross section.
– Thus average velocity is used in the mass flow rate
equation above instead:
kg/s where:
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Conservation of mass:
• Mass and Volume Flow Rates:
– Volume flow rate, , is the volume of fluid flowing
through a cross section per unit time.

– Mass and volume flow rates are related as follows:

where v is the specific volume.

 CONSERVATION LAWS
Conservation of mass principle:
• The conservation of mass principle for a
control volume can be expressed as:
– The net mass transfer to
or from a control volume
during a time interval Δt
is equal to the net
change (increase or
decrease) of the total
mass within the control
volume during Δt. Conservation of mass principle for an
ordinary bathtub.
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Conservation of mass principle:

or

where ΔmCV = mfinal – minitial is the change in the mass of the control
volume during the process
– In rate form, it is expressed as:

where ṁin and ṁout are the total rates of mass flow into and out
of the control volume, and dmCV/dt is the rate of change of
mass within the control volume boundaries
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Conservation of mass principle:
• Considering a control volume of arbitrary shape
– If the mass of a differential
volume dV within the CV is

– ∴ The total mass within the CV

The differential CV, dV, & the
differential control surface,
dA, used in the derivation of – Then the rate of change of mass
the conservation of mass
relation. within the CV is:
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes:
• During a steady-flow process, the total amount of
mass contained within a control volume does not
change with time (mCV = constant).
• Then the conservation of mass principle requires
that the total amount of mass entering a control
volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.
– E.g. for a garden hose nozzle in steady operation, the
amount of water entering and leaving the nozzle per
unit time is equal.
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes:
• Steady-flow processes focuses on the amount
of mass flowing through a device per unit time
(mass flow rate ṁ), and not the amount of
mass that flows in or out of a device over time.
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes:
• The conservation of mass principle for a general
steady-flow system with multiple inlets and
outlets is expressed in rate form as

It states that the total rate of

mass entering a control volume
is equal to the total rate of mass
leaving it.
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes:
• Many engineering devices
such as nozzles, diffusers,
turbines, compressors, &
pumps involve a single
stream (one inlet & one
outlet).
• For these cases, the
general steady-flow eqn. Garden hose with a nozzle attached
reduces to:
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Special Case: Incompressible Flow :
• The conservation of mass relations can be
simplified even further for incompressible
(liquids) by cancelling the density from both
sides of the general steady-flow relation:

For single-stream steady-flow systems the eqn above becomes

 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Example:
A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to
fill a 10-gal bucket. The inner diameter of the
hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the
nozzle exit. If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with
water, determine:
(a) The volume and mass flow rates of water through
the hose.
(b) The average velocity of water at the nozzle exit
Take density of water = 1000 kg/m3; 1 gallon = 3.7854 L
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Example:
Noting that water is nearly incompressible, the
flow through the hose is steady,10 gal of water are
discharged in 50 s, the volume and mass flow rates
( and ṁ)of water are:
a)
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Example:
b)
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Example:
The diameters of a pipe at the ①
②

sections 1-1 and 2-2 are 200 mm

and 300 mm respectively. If the
①
velocity of water flowing through ②

the pipe at section 1-1 is 4 m/s, find:

(a) The discharge through the pipe.
(b) The velocity of water at section 2-2.
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Example:
Solution.
Diameter of the pipe at section 1-1:

Velocity of water through section 1-1 of pipe,

a) Discharge (Q) through pipe, that is, volume flow rate through section 1-1
of pipe,
Assuming a single stream, steady flow process:
/s
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Example:
Solution.
b) Velocity of water at section 2-2 of pipe,

˙ 2 0.126 𝑚3 / 𝑠
𝑉
⃗
𝑉 2= =
𝐴2 0.071𝑚
2
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Review Questions
1. With the aid of equations explain or briefly describe
the following principles (wrt open & closed systems)
a. Conservation of mass
b. Conservation of momentum
c. Conservation of energy
2. Despite the general validity of the conservation of
mass principle in nature, mass is technically not a
conserved property of a system. Explain.
3. Differentiate between mass and volume flow rates
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Review Questions
3. Consider the differential area and volume
elements within the pipe, with area, dA, &
volume, dV, respectively
a. Derive a practical equation for determining mass flow
rate through the entire cross-sectional area of the pipe if
the differential mass flow rate of fluid flowing across dAc
is proportional to its area, dAc, the fluid density, 𝜌, and
the normal velocity Vn, of the fluid across dAc.
b. The total mass and rate of change of mass within the
pipe
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Example:
Review Questions
4. The velocity profile for the steady laminar flow of
water through a 0.4-m-diatneter pipe is defined by ,
where r is in meters (see fig. below). Determine the
volumetric flow through the pipe and the average
velocity of the flow.
𝑣 = 3 ( 1− 25 𝑟 ) 𝑚/ 𝑠
2
⃗
 CONSERVATION OF MASS
Example:
Review Questions
5. Water flows into 15.2 cm
diameter fire hydrant at
QC = 0.113 m3/s. If the
velocity out the 5.08 cm 18.3 m/s
diameter nozzle at A is 5.08 cm 7.5 cm
15.2 cm
18.3 m/s, determine the
discharge out the 7.5 cm
diameter nozzle at B.
MECHANICAL ENERGY AND
EFFICIENCY
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Forms of Energy
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
– Thermal energy
– Mechanical energy
– Kinetic energy
– Potential
– Electrical energy Sums up to Total energy, E (or e = E/m)
– Magnetic energy
– Chemical energy
– Nuclear energy
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Mechanical energy
– The form of energy that can
be converted to mechanical
work completely and directly
by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine.
• A pump transfers mechanical
energy to a fluid by raising its
pressure.
• A turbine extracts mechanical energy from a fluid by
dropping its pressure.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Mechanical energy
– The pressure of a flowing fluid is associated with its
mechanical energy but is not a form of energy.
• The association of pressure with energy can be shown as
follows:

..........eqn 11.1

Where F is force of fluid stream or flow; Ac is the cross-sectional through

which the fluid stream enters/leaves the system; v is volume; L is length,
& W is work. Thus pressure can be expressed as the work done, or
energy required, per unit volume to move a fluid & maintain flow.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Mechanical energy
– Pressure is also related to the work done, or energy
required, per unit mass to move & maintain the
flow of a fluid through a distance, by the quantity
P/ρ known as flow work as shown:

..........eqn 11.2
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Mechanical energy
– Flow work is expressed in terms of fluid properties,
and it is convenient to view it as part of the energy
of a flowing fluid called flow energy.
– Therefore, the mechanical energy of a flowing fluid
can be expressed on a unit mass basis as

..........eqn 11.3

where P/r is the flow energy, V2/2 is the kinetic energy, and gz is
the potential energy of the fluid, all per unit mass.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Mechanical energy
– Then the mechanical energy change of a fluid
during incompressible (𝜌 = constant) flow becomes

..........eqn 11.4

– Hence, the mechanical energy of a fluid does not

change during flow if its pressure, density, velocity,
and elevation remain constant.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Mechanical energy
– In the absence of irreversible losses, the
mechanical energy change represents
• The mechanical work supplied to the fluid (if 𝛥emech > 0)
• The mechanical work extracted from the fluid (if 𝛥emech
< 0).
– The maximum (ideal) power generated by a
turbine, for example, is Ẇmax = ṁ𝛥emech,
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Mechanical energy

Mechanical energy is illustrated by an ideal hydraulic turbine coupled with an ideal

generator. In the absence of irreversible losses, the maximum produced power is
proportional to (a) the change in water surface elevation from the upstream to the
downstream reservoir or (b) (close-up view) the drop in water pressure from just
upstream to just downstream of the turbine.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Mechanical energy
– Consider a container of height h filled with water.
• At point A at the free surface:
Pgage, A = 0 and peA = gh
• At point B at the bottom of the
container:
Pgage, B = 𝜌gh and peB = 0.
• Thus for an ideal hydraulic
turbine at the bottom elevation
would produce the same work The available mechanical energy
per unit mass wturbine = gh of water at the bottom of a
whether it receives water from container is equal to the available
the top or from the bottom of mechanical energy at any depth
including the free surface of the
the container. container.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Mechanical energy
– Transfer of mechanical energy is usually achieved
using a rotating shaft, thus mechanical work is often
referred to as shaft work.
• A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an
electric motor) and transfers it to the fluid as mechanical
energy (less frictional losses).

Side and frontal view of a

typical centrifugal pump
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Mechanical energy
• A turbine, on the other hand, converts the mechanical
energy of a fluid to shaft work.

Wind turbine: air turns the

blades and the output shaft
drives an electric generator
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Efficiency
– Mechanical energy cannot be converted entirely
from one form to another due to losses
– Thus mechanical efficiency of a device or process is
defined as
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Efficiency
– Considering the fan below with a mechanical power
input of 50 W
V1 ≈ 0, V2 = 12.1 m/s, z1 = z2

= 0.741

• A ηmech of 74 % means that 26 % of

the Emech, in is converted to thermal
energy as a result of frictional heating
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Efficiency
– For a pump

– For a turbine
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Efficiency
– Mechanical efficiency different from motor and
generator efficiencies, which are defined as
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Efficiency
– However, a pump is usually
packaged together with its motor,
and a turbine with its generator.
– Thus, the combined or overall
efficiency of pump–motor and
turbine–generator combinations
are:

and
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Efficiency
– All the efficiencies just defined range between 0
and 100 %.
• 0 %: total conversion of mechanical or electric energy
input to thermal energy.
• 100 %: perfect conversion with no friction or other
irreversibilities, and thus no conversion of mechanical or
electric energy to thermal energy (no losses).
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• In practice, most processes involve only certain
forms of energy.
• For mechanical systems & there energy
transfers to shaft work, the conservation of
energy principle can be expressed simply as:

where Emech, loss represents the conversion of mechanical energy to thermal

energy due to irreversibilities such as friction.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• For a system in steady operation,
the rate of mechanical energy
balance becomes:

Many fluid flow problems involve mechanical forms

of energy only, and such problems are conveniently
solved by using a rate of mechanical energy balance.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Example
The water in a large lake is to be used to generate
electricity by the installation of a hydraulic turbine–
generator. The elevation difference between the free
surfaces upstream and downstream of the dam is 50
m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000 kg/s. If the
electric power generated is measured to be 1862 kW
and the generator efficiency is 95 percent, determine
(a) the overall efficiency of the turbine–generator,
(b) the mechanical efficiency of the turbine, and
(c) the shaft power supplied by the turbine to the generator.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Example
(a)
?
Assuming the elevation of the lake and that of
the discharge site remain constant and frictional
losses are negligible, the change in the water’s
mechanical energy per unit mass ∆ℯmech is

But Pin = Pout = Patm and Vin = Vout ≈ 0

= 0.758
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Example
(b) Knowing the overall and generator efficiencies, the
mechanical efficiency of the turbine is determined from
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Example
The motion of a steel ball in a
hemispherical bowl of radius h
shown below is to be analyzed.
The ball is initially held at the
highest location at point A,
and then it is released. Obtain
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Example
The general energy balance equation
for any system undergoing a process:

..........(1)

For the actual motion eqn 1 For the ideal motion, no friction,
(per unit mass) becomes: eqn 2a & 2b (per unit mass)
become:
(ke1 + pe1) - (ke2 + pe2) = wfriction ...(2a)
(ke1 + pe1) - (ke2 + pe2) = 0 ...(3a)
or
or
...(3b)
...(2b)

or ...(3c)
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Review Questions
1.Define turbine efficiency, generator efficiency, and
combined turbine–generator efficiency.
2.What is mechanical efficiency? What does a mechanical
efficiency of 100 percent mean for a hydraulic turbine?
3.How is the combined pump–motor efficiency of a pump
and motor system defined? Can the combined pump–
motor efficiency be greater than either the pump or the
motor efficiency?
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Review Questions
4.What is mechanical energy? How does it differ from thermal
energy? What are the forms of mechanical energy of a fluid
stream?
5.At a certain location, wind is blowing steadily at 8 m/s.
Determine the mechanical energy of air per unit mass and
the power generation potential of a wind turbine with 50-m-
diameter blades at that location. Also determine the actual
electric power generation assuming an overall efficiency of
30 percent. Take the air density to be 1.25 kg/m3.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Review Questions
6.Electric power is to be generated by installing a
hydraulic turbine–generator at a site 150 m below the
free surface of a large water reservoir that can supply
water steadily at a rate of 850 kg/s. If the mechanical
power output of the turbine is 850 kW and the electric
power generation is 800 kW, determine the turbine
efficiency and the combined turbine–generator
efficiency of this plant. Neglect losses in the pipes.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Review Questions
7.A differential thermocouple with sensors at the inlet and exit
of a pump indicates that the temperature of water rises
0.05oC as it flows through the pump at a rate of 40 L/s. If the
shaft power input to the pump is 17 kW and the heat loss to
the surrounding air is negligible, determine the mechanical
efficiency of the pump.
ΔT = 0.05oC
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Review Questions
8. What is the total 3.5 m/s

mechanical energy per unit

mass of a river which flows
towards a lake 70 m below
at a speed of 3.5 m/s at 500 m3/s. Also calculate the
power generation potential of the entire river.
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
Review Questions
9. A storage tank is filled from a
lake by pumping water at a rate
of 0.07 m3/s over a vertical
20 m
distance of 20 m. If the pump
consumes an electric power of
20.4 kW and assuming losses
due to
friction is insignificant, determine
a) The overall efficiency of the pump-motor unit
b) The pressure difference between the inlet and exit of
the pump
THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
 The Bernoulli Equation
• The Bernoulli equation is an
approximate relation between
pressure, velocity, and elevation.
• It is valid in regions of steady, Fig 12.1:
incompressible flow where net
frictional forces are negligible
• It is derived by
– applying the conservation of linear momentum
principle
– assuming viscous effects are very small compared to
inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects.
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
– The motion of a particle and the path it follows are
described by the velocity vector as a function of
• time and space coordinates and
• the initial position of the particle.
– In steady flow (no change with time at a specified
location), all particles that pass through the same
point follow the same path (the streamline), and
the velocity vectors remain tangent to the path at
every point.
• A streamline is the line which is everywhere tangent to
the velocity vector.
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
– The motion of a particle can
be conveniently to described
in terms of its distance, s,
along a streamline together
with the radius of curvature
along the streamline:
• The speed of the particle is
related to the distance by V = Fig 12.2: The most common
ds/dt, which may vary along the method of flow pattern
streamline. presentation is using
streamlines, which are
everywhere tangent to the
velocity vector
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
• In two-dimensional flow, the acceleration can be
decomposed into two components:
– streamwise acceleration, as, along the streamline and
– normal acceleration, an, in the direction normal to the
streamline, which is given as an = V2/R.
– Note: V3
– Streamwise acceleration is V2
due to a change in speed R V1
along a streamline

A
– Normal acceleration is due

A
A
to a change in direction.
Fig 12.3: The cars (normal) acceleration acts
towards the centre and changes with direction
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
– For particles that move along a straight path:
(radius of curvature is infinity thus
an = 0 there is no change in direction.)

– The Bernoulli equation results from a force balance

along a streamline.
– It may be tempting to think that acceleration is zero
in steady flow since acceleration is the rate of
change of velocity with time, and in steady flow
there is no change with time.
– Considering a garden hose nozzle tells us that this
understanding is not correct.
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
– Even in steady flow and thus
constant mass flow rate, water
accelerates through the nozzle.
– Steady simply means no change Fig 12.4:
with time at a specified
location, but the value of a
quantity may change from one location to another.
– In the case of a nozzle, the velocity of water
remains constant at a specified point, but it
changes from the inlet to the exit (water
accelerates along the nozzle).
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
– Mathematically, this can be expressed as follows:
• We take the velocity V of a fluid particle to be a function
of s and t.
• Taking the total differential of V(s, t) and dividing both
sides by dt yield
12.1

12.2
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
– Consider the motion of a fluid
particle in a flow field in
steady flow.
– Applying Newton’s second law
(linear momentum equation in
fluid mechanics) in the s-
direction on a particle moving
Fig 12.5:
along a streamline gives
12.3
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
– In regions of flow where net frictional forces are
negligible, there is no pump or turbine, and there is
no heat transfer along the streamline, the
significant forces acting in the s-direction are the
pressure (acting on both sides) and the component
of the weight of the particle in the s-direction (Fig.
12.5).
– Therefore, Eq. 12.3 becomes
12.4
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
– Eqn 12.4, after substituting m, W, & sin 𝜃 reduces to:
12.5

– Cancelling dA from each term and simplifying:

12.6

– Noting that & dividing each term by 𝜌 gives:

12.7

– Integrating:
12.8
 Mechanical Energy & Efficiency
• Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
– For steady, incompressible flow:
12.9 (Bernoulli’s equation)

where the value of the constant in Eq. 12.9 can be evaluated at any point on the
streamline where the pressure, density, velocity, and elevation are known.

– Between any two points on the same streamline as:

12.10
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
– The Bernoulli equation can be
viewed as an expression of
mechanical energy balance and
can be stated as follows:
• The sum of the kinetic, potential,
and flow energies of a fluid particle
Fig 12.6:
is constant along a streamline
during steady flow when
compressibility and frictional
effects are negligible.
– Thus Bernoulli equation can be viewed as the
“conservation of mechanical energy principle.”
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Force Balance across Streamlines
– Force balance in the direction n
normal to the streamline for
steady, incompressible flow:
12.11

– For flow along curved streamlines, the

pressure decreases towards the centre of
curvature, and fluid particles experience
a corresponding centripetal force and centripetal
acceleration due to this pressure gradient.
 The Bernoulli Equation Fig 12.5:

• Force Balance across Streamlines

– For flow along a straight line, R →
∞ and Eq. 12.12 reduces to:
P/ρ + gz = constant
or 12.12
Fig 12.7: The variation of
P = -ρgz + constant
pressure with elevation in
steady, incompressible flow
– Therefore, the variation of along a straight line is the same
as that in stationary fluid.
pressure with elevation
in steady, incompressible flow along a straight line
in an inviscid region of flow is the same as that in
the stationary fluid (variation of hydrostatic
pressure with depth).
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Unsteady, Compressible Flow
– Similarly, using both terms in the acceleration
expression (Eq. 12.1), the Bernoulli equation for
unsteady, compressible flow is

12.13
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
– The Bernoulli equation is the sum of the flow,
kinetic, and potential energies of a fluid particle
along a streamline is constant.
– Thus, the kinetic and potential energies of the fluid
can be converted to flow energy (and vice versa)
during flow, causing the pressure to change.
– This phenomenon can be made more visible by
multiplying the Bernoulli equation by the density ρ,
12.14

Static Dynamic Hydrostati Total

+ + =
pressure c pressure pressure
pressure
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
– Each term in eqn 12.14 has pressure units, and thus
each term represents some kind of pressure:
• P is the static pressure; the actual thermodynamic
pressure of the fluid and is the same pressure used in
thermodynamics and property tables.
• ρV2/2 is the dynamic pressure; the pressure rise when
the fluid in motion is brought to a stop isentropically.
• ρgz is the hydrostatic pressure term, accounts for the
elevation effects, i.e., fluid weight on pressure. (Be
careful of the sign—unlike hydrostatic pressure ρgh
which increases with fluid depth h, the hydrostatic
pressure term ρgz decreases with fluid depth.)
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
– Stagnation pressure:
• This is the sum of the static and
dynamic pressures.
• It represents the pressure at a
point where the fluid is brought to
a complete stop isentropically.

12.15

Fig 12.6:
V is the fluid velocity at a specified
location where static & stagnation
pressures are measured
 The Bernoulli Equation
• Read up on the following in Fluid Mechanics by
Yunus A. Cengel and John M. Cimbala; 3ed:
– Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures (pages
202 – 204)
– Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
(pages 204 – 205)
– Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line
(EGL) (pages 205 – 207)
– Applications of the Bernoulli Equation (pages 207 –
214)
Derivation of
Derivation of
 Derivation of
• Recall that:

• Rearranging (or multiplying both sides of the

equation by yields:
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
AND
DYNAMIC SIMILITUDE
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional analysis is the procedure for
obtaining the dimensionless parameters of a flow
system.
• These dimensionless parameters are groupings of
the flow properties that affect the performance
of a model and the prototype.
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensional Analysis
• Advantages of dimensional analysis:
– It saves energy
– It saves cost
– It improves the chance of producing a near perfect
design of the prototype at first attempt.
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensional Analysis
• The three primary purposes of dimensional
analysis include
– To generate non-dimensional parameters for design
of experiments and in the reporting of experimental
results
– To obtain scaling laws to enable prediction of
prototype performance from model performance
– To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship
between parameters
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensional Analysis
• Units and Dimensions
– The dimensions of a quantity
identify the physical character
of that quantity, e.g., force (F),
mass (M), length (L), time (t),
temperature (T), electric
charge (e), etc.
– Units identify the reference scale by which the
magnitude of a physical quantity is measured
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensional Analysis
• Units and Dimensions
– Many different reference scales (units) can be defined
for a given dimension
– Dimensions can be classified as either:
• Fundamental (or primary/basic) dimensions
• Derived dimensions
– Fundamental dimensions cannot be expressed in
terms of other dimensions
– Derived dimensions can be expressed in terms of
fundamental dimensions
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensional Analysis
• Units and Dimensions
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensional Analysis
• Units and Dimensions
– Examples of primary dimensions of some quantities
Area = Length (L) × Width (L) = L2 (13.1a)

Volume = Length (L) × Width (L) × Height (L) = L3 (13.1b)

Force = Mass (M) × Acceleration (L/t2) = ML/t2 (13.1c)

Energy = Force(M.L/t2) × Distance (L) = ML2/t2 (13.1d)

Power = Energy(M.L2/t2) ÷ Time (t) = ML2/t3 (13.1e)

 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional Homogeneity
– The law of dimensional homogeneity states that every
additive term in an equation must have the same
dimensions.

(13.2a)

Change in total energy of a simple compressible

closed system from state 1 to state 2:
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional Homogeneity
(13.2b)

(13.2c)

(13.2d)

(13.2e)
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Buckingham Π Theorem
• This states that the number of independent
dimensionless groups of variables
(dimensionless parameters), π-groups, needed
to correlate the variables in a given process, is
given by the formula:
Π=n–m (13.3)

where n is the number of variables involved and m is the number of

primary dimensions included in the variables.
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Buckingham Π Theorem
• Thus the equation describing a physical system,
with n dimensional variables, expressed as
y1 = f(y2, y3, …yn ) (13.4)

Can be rearranged as follows:

π1 = φ(π2, π3, …π(n-m)) (13.5)

Where 𝜋1, 𝜋2, 𝜋3, 𝜋(n-m)are non-dimensional

 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Buckingham Π Theorem
• For instance, if the
instantaneous elevation z
of a ball is a function of
time t, initial vertical speed
w0, initial elevation z0, and
gravitational constant g;
expressed as:
(13.6)
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Buckingham Π Theorem
– The no of variables involved:
• n = 5 (z, t , w0 ,Z0 , g)
– The no of 1o dimensions involved :
•

∴m=2
– Thus the no of π-groups:
• Π=n–m=5–2=3
• ∴ π1 = φ(π2 .π3) (13.7)
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Step-by-step Method
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
• Exponent Method

• Step-by-step Method
– This method involves making the dimensions of
variables, of the functional relationship of a process,
dimensionless in mass, length, and time, in a stepwise
manner.
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Step-by-step Method
– At each step, one of the variables is combined with
others to eliminate it and to render them
dimensionless in whatever dimensions one desire.
– It may be necessary to use multiples of the
variables in rendering some of the others
dimensionless.
– The procedure is tabulated below:
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Step-by-step Method
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Step-by-step Method
– Example:
• Consider the pressure drop ΔP experienced by a fluid in
turbulent motion over a length L of a smooth pipe which
has been found to be a function of the fluid velocity V,
the pipe diameter D, the fluid density ρ, and the fluid
viscosity μ. Use the step-by-step method to find the 𝜋-
groups and a new functional dimensionless relationship
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Step-by-step Method
– Situation: Given (13.8)

– Find: 𝜋-groups using step-by-step method

– Solution
• Step 1: Identify the significant variables and write out the
primary dimensions of each

Variables There are three

10 dimensions
Dimensions L2 t2 t Lt
involved: M, L,
& t.
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Step-by-step Method
– Solution
• Step 2: Apply the Buckingham 𝛱 theorem to find the
number 𝜋-groups:
# of 𝜋-groups = n – m
=5–
3
=2
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Step-by-step Method
• Step 3 – 7
Variables L M t 𝛱
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Step-by-step Method
– Solution
• Thus, the final functional form of the equation is:

• The functional equation above can be rearranged to

conform with established dimensionless groups:
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Also a stepwise method but involves the
determination of dimensionless parameters (𝜋-
groups); 𝜋1, 𝜋2, 𝜋3,etc in a sequential order.
– The procedure is tabulated below:
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
Step Action Taken During This Step
Identify the significant dimensional variables, yi, and write out the
1
primary dimensions of each [yi].
Count the total numbers of dimensional variables n identified above and
2 the dimensions represented therein, m, and apply the Buckingham 𝛱
theorem to find the number of 𝜋-groups.
3 Choose m repeating parameters (see guidelines)
Construct the 𝜋-groups by multiplying one of the non-repeating
4 variables by the product of the repeating variables, each raised to an
exponent that will make the combination dimensionless.
5 Write the final functional relationship and check your algebra.
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Guidelines for choosing repeating parameters:
• Never pick dependent variables
• The chosen repeating parameters must not be able to
form a dimensionless group by themselves
• The chosen repeating parameters must represent all the
primary dimensions in the problem
• Never pick parameters that are already dimensionless
• Never pick two parameters with the same dimensions or
with dimensions that differ by only an exponent
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Guidelines for choosing repeating parameters:
• Whenever possible, choose dimensional constants over
dimensional variables 𝜋-group contains the dimensional
variable.
• Pick common parameters since they appear in each of
the 𝜋-groups.
• Pick simple parameters over complex parameters
whenever possible.
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Situation: Given
(13.8)
– Find: 𝜋-groups using Buckingham 𝛱 method
– Solution
• Step 1: Identify the significant variables an write out the
primary dimensions of each

Variables There are three

10 dimensions
Dimensions L2 t2 t Lt
involved: M, L,
& t.
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Solution
• Step 2: Apply the Buckingham 𝛱 theorem to find the
number 𝜋-groups:
# of 𝜋-groups = n – m
=5–3
=2
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Solution
• Step 3: Choose m repeating parameters using guidelines:
m = 3; ∴ choose 3 repeating parameters
Repeating parameters: V, 𝜌, and D

• Step 4: Construct the 𝜋-groups:

(13.9)

(13.10)
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Solution
• Step 4: Construct the 𝜋-groups
Substituting dimensions for variables in 𝛱1 and 𝛱2 equations:

(13.9a) (13.10a)

t0 t0
t t2 t t
(13.9b) (13.10b)
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Solution
• Step 4: Construct the 𝜋-groups
Equating the exponents for M, L, & t in the 𝛱1 and 𝛱2 dimension
equations (13.9b & 13.10b):

For 𝛱1 ( t0 ):
t t t2
M: b1 + 1 = 0

L: a1 – 3b1 + c1 – 2 = 0 ∴ a1 = -2; b1 = -1; c1 = 1

T: -a1 – 2 = 0
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Solution
• Step 4: Construct the 𝜋-groups
Equating the exponents for M, L, & T in the 𝛱1 and 𝛱2 dimension
equations:

For 𝛱2 ( t0 ):
t t
M: b2 + 1 = 0

L: a2 – 3b2 + c2 – 1 = 0 ∴ a2 = -1; b2 = -1; c2 = -1

T: -a2 – 1 = 0
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Solution
• Step 4: Construct the 𝜋-groups
Substitute values of exponents into equations 13.9 & 13.10 :

13.9c 13.10 c
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Buckingham 𝛱 (Repeating Variables) Method
– Solution
• Step 5: Write the final functional relationship by
substituting values of 𝛱1 and 𝛱2 from 13.9c & 13.10c into
eqn 13.5:

• Rearranging the dimensionless functional equation to

conform with established dimensionless groups:
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Exponent Method
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Exponent Method
– Situation: Given (13.8)

– Find: 𝜋-groups using Buckingham 𝛱 method

– Solution
• Step 1: Identify the significant variables an write out the
primary dimensions of each

Variables There are three

10 dimensions
Dimensions L2 t2 t Lt
involved: M, L,
& t.
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Exponent Method
– Solution
• Step 2: Apply the Buckingham 𝛱 theorem to find the
number 𝜋-groups:
# of 𝜋-groups = n – m = 5 – 3 = 2
=5–3=2
=2
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Exponent Method
– Solution
• Step 3: Write out the product of the primary dimensions
for eqn 13.8 in the form [y1] = [y2]a×[y3]b×…× [yn]k:

a c d
b
= × × ×
t2 t t

13.11
t
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Exponent Method
– Solution
• Step 4: Dimensional homogeneity; equate powers of
dimensions on each side of eqn 13.11:
M: c + d = 1
L: -a – b + 3c + d = 2
t a+d=2
T:
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Exponent Method
– Solution
• Step 5: Solve for exponents a, b, and c in terms of d using
Cramer’s Rule for system equations:

The value of the determinant is 1

thus the system has a unique
solution:
a = 2 – d, b = -1 – d, c = 1 – d.
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Exponent Method
– Solution
• Step 5: Write dimensional equation (13.8) with exponents:

Hence the functional form, , can be written as:

Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Techniques of Dimensional Analysis
• Exponent Method
– Solution
• Rearranging the dimensionless functional equation to
conform with established dimensionless groups:
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Practice questions
1. Write the primary dimensions for each of the
following:
a) Energy
b) Specific energy
c) Power
d) Universal ideal gas constant
e) Acceleration
f) Angle
g) Volume flow rate
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Practice questions
2. The power, Ė, required to run a pump that moves
fluid within a piping system is dependent upon the
volume flowrate, Q, density, ρ, impeller diameter, d,
angular velocity, V, and fluid viscosity,μ. Find the
number of pi-groups for this relationship.
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Similitude is the science of predicting prototype
behaviour from the observation of a model that
is geometrically similar.
• Similarity between prototype and model, is
dependent on:
– Geometrical similarity.
– Kinematic similarity
– Dynamic similarity
307
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:

lp

lm

Geometric similarity = lm/lp = lr; Kinematic similarity = Vm/Vp = Vr; Dynamic

similarity = FD, m/FD, p = FD, r
308
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Geometric similarity: implies that ratios of all
corresponding linear dimensions in the model and
prototype must be constant.
• Kinematic similarity: implies that the ratio of velocity and
the ratios of quantities derived from velocity at
corresponding points of the model and prototype must
be constant
• Dynamic similarity implies that the ratio of dynamic
forces at corresponding points of the prototype and
model must be constant.
309
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• For complete similarity between a prototype &
its model in a flow field, there must be
geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity.
• Thus for a given fluid system problem with a
dimensionless functional equation, 𝛱1 = 𝛱2 + 𝛱3
+ ...+ 𝛱k:
𝛱2, m = 𝛱2, p, 𝛱3, m = 𝛱3, p, ..., 𝛱k, m = 𝛱k, p 14.1
where: subscript m indicates model
subscript p indicates prototype 310
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Since: 𝛱1, m = 𝛱2, m + 𝛱3, m + ...+ 𝛱k, m
and
𝛱1, p = 𝛱2, p + 𝛱3, p + ...+ 𝛱k, p
∴ 𝛱1, m = 𝛱1, p 14.2

311
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Submerged Bodies
• The behaviour of submerged bodies are studied in water
and wind tunnels; water being preferred where very high
velocities are required.
• Tunnel studies are used to determine drag characteristics
and compressibility characteristics where very high air
velocities are involved.
• The Reynolds model is used to achieve dynamic similarity
between prototype and model flows.
312
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Submerged Bodies
• Aerodynamics wind tunnel testing of new sports car.

Geometrically scaled model of a new sports car prototype (Lm/Lp = Lr.

313
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Submerged Bodies
• Aerodynamics wind tunnel testing of new sports car.
Aerodynamic drag on car, FD = f(V, L, ρ, μ), expressed as two (2)
dimensionless parameters via dimensional analysis:
14.3
where FD is the magnitude of the aerodynamic drag on the car, ρ is the air density,
V is the car’s speed (or the speed of the air in the wind tunnel), L is the length of
the car, and μ is the viscosity of the air. Π1 is a nonstandard form of the drag
coefficient, and Π2 is the Reynolds number, Re.
314
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Submerged Bodies
• Aerodynamics wind tunnel testing of new sports car.
∴ if the independent Π’s match (the Reynolds numbers match: Π 2, m
= Π 2, p) in eqn 6.3, then the dependent Π’s also match (Π 1, m = Π 1, p).

315
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Submerged Bodies
• Example
The aerodynamic drag of a new sports car is to be predicted at a
speed of 50.0 mi/h at an air temperature of 25°C. Automotive
engineers build a one-fifth scale model of the car to test in a wind
tunnel. It is winter and the wind tunnel is located in an unheated
building; the temperature of the wind tunnel air is only about 5°C.
a. Determine how fast the engineers should run the wind tunnel
in order to achieve similarity between the model and the
prototype.

316
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Submerged Bodies
• Example
b. Predict the aerodynamic drag force on the prototype (at 50 mi/h and
25°C), supposing the engineers run the wind tunnel at the model velocity
determined above and an average drag force on the model is 21.2 lbf.

317
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Submerged Bodies
• Example (Solution):
a. The aerodynamic drag on car, FD = f(V, L, ρ, μ), can be expressed
as a two (2) dimensionless parameters via dimensional analysis:

For similarity between model and prototype; 𝛱2, m = 𝛱2, p

Since ,∴
318
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Submerged Bodies
• Example (Solution):
Hence:

Solving for Vm from the above:

Vp and Lp/Lm are given in the question; 50 mi/h and 5/1.
However 𝜇m, 𝜇p, 𝜌m, and 𝜌p are determined from the
properties table for air at 1 atm.
For air at atmospheric pressure and at T = 25°C, 𝜌 = 1.184 kg/m3 and 𝜇 = 1.849 × 10-5
kg/m·s. Similarly, at T = 5°C, 𝜌 = 1.269 kg/m3 and 𝜇 = 1.754 × 10-5 kg/m·s.

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 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Submerged Bodies
• Example (Solution):
∴ Vm

b. Since 𝛱2, m = 𝛱2, p, ∴ 𝛱1, m = 𝛱1, p

Since ,∴

Thus,
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 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Submerged Bodies
• Example (Solution):
Solving for FD, P

321
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Pipe Flow
• This refers, typically, to flows of incompressible fluids in
closed conduits.
• Gravity, surface tension and compressibility forces have no
effect on such flows which are controlled solely by pressure
and viscosity.
• Therefore, the Reynolds model is applicable for the analysis
of pipe flow.
• The flow velocity varies across the pipe, being zero at the
wall and maximum at the centre.
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 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Pipe Flow
• Depending on the mean velocity through the pipe, the
mode of flow can be laminar or turbulent.
• For Re ≤ 2000, the flow is laminar and viscous forces
predominate (inertia forces predominate when Re >
2000).
• Complete similarity is achieved between the model and
the prototype for laminar flow under all conditions.
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 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Pipe Flow
• However, for turbulent flow, there has to be geometric
similarity between the roughness of the pipes and their
laminar sub layer before dynamic similarity can be
attained between the model and the prototype flows.

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 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Pipe Flow
• Example
A venturi meter is to be used to measure the flow through a pipe
of 1m diameter. The throat of the prototype is 0.1m in diameter
and the fluid velocity is 5m/s. Determine the discharge through
the model for a scale of 1:10.

325
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Pipe Flow
• Example (Solution)

326
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Similitude:
• Applications of similitude
– Pipe Flow
• Example

327
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Practice questions
1. A student team is to design a human-powered submarine for
a design competition. The overall length of the prototype
submarine is 4.85 m, and its student designers hope that it
can travel fully submerged through water at 0.440 m/s. The
water is freshwater (a lake) at T = 15°C. The design team
builds a one-fifth scale model to test in their university’s wind
tunnel. A shield surrounds the drag balance strut so that the
aerodynamic drag of the strut itself does not influence the
measured drag. The air in the wind tunnel is at 25°C and at
one standard atmosphere pressure. At what air speed do they
need to run the wind tunnel in order to achieve similarity?
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Practice questions

Diagram for Practice Question 1

 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Practice questions
2. A lightweight parachute is being designed for military use. Its
diameter D is 7 m and the total weight W of the falling payload,
parachute, and equipment is 1023 N. The design terminal settling
speed Vt of the parachute at this weight is 5.5 m/s. A one-twelfth
scale model of the parachute is tested in a wind tunnel. The wind
tunnel temperature and pressure are the same as those of the
prototype, namely 15°C and standard atmospheric pressure. (a)
Calculate the drag coefficient of the prototype. (Hint: At terminal
settling speed, weight is balanced by aerodynamic drag.) (b) At
what wind tunnel speed should the wind tunnel be run in order
to achieve dynamic similarity? (c) Estimate the aerodynamic drag
of the model parachute in the wind tunnel (in N).
 Dimensional Analysis and Dynamic
Similitude
Practice questions

Diagram for Practice Question 2