LEARNING MODULE ON

EEAD0323 : EE APPARATUS &

DEVICES
BSEE 3
SECOND SEMESTER AY 2022-2023

ENGR. NELSON S. ANDRES, M.ENGG., PEE, ACPE

INSTRUCTOR
Course Description:
This course provides characteristics,
principle of operation, and applications of
single-phase and three-phase transformers,
and protective devices such as fuses and
circuit breakers. It includes various types of
transformers based on different criteria,
types of fuses and circuit breakers, parallel
operation of transformers, and standard
ratings.
Course Description:
COURSE OUTLINE:
1. VMGO and orientation
2. Introduction to Power System
3. Types of Substation
4. Transformer
5. Electromotive Force Equation and Vector Diagram
6. Transformer Equivalent Circuit
7. Transformer Losses & efficiency
8. Short Circuit & Open Circuit Tests
9. Parallel operation of Transformer
10. Auto -Transformers
11. Three-phase Transformers
12. Instrument Transformer
REFERENCES:

1. A Textbook of Electrical Technology by

Theraja
2. Elements of Power System by Stevenson
3. Principles of Power System by Metha
4. Reviewer of AC Machinery by Regacho
INTRODUCTION TO POWER
SYSTEM
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

- The system for the transformation

of other types of energy and the
transmission of this energy to the point
of consumption.
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM
6 Main Elements of Electric Power System

1. Power Station
2. Set of Transformer
3. Transmission Lines
4. Substation
5. Sub transmission Line
6. Transformer
Kinds of Power Plants
1. Hydro-electric
2. Geothermal
3. Thermal
a. Bunker Oil
b. Coal
c. Wood
4. Solar and Wind
5. Nuclear
6. Gas Turbine
7. Natural Gas
8. Combined Cycle
Substation – an assembly of switchgears
components used for:

1. Direct flow of energy into a power system

2. Ensure the safety of the system by
providing a point at which automatic
protection is installed.
3. Divert the flow of energy along its existing
and/or alternate routes.
Substation
SWITCH YARD
- place where switch gears, breakers
etc. can be found.

SWITCH GEAR
- assembly of equipment and devices
used to control and meter the electric
energy
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION
1. Those directly controlling the flow of the
power to the system
2. Those converting the voltage level of the
supply from higher to a lower voltage or
vice-versa
3. Those that direct or connect a number of
supply routes at the same voltage level
KINDS OF SUBSTATION

1. Station Substation - Those found beside or near

generation station
2. Transmission substation - one which receives bulk
power and voltage and steps down to sub-
transmission voltage level
3. Distribution Substation - those installed along sub
transmission circuit and are located at a point
dictated by load requirement.
4. Customer substation - Those that solely serve an
industry or commercial establishment.
MAJOR EQUIPMENT FOUND IN
SUBSTATION
1. Power Transformer
2. Bus Bars
3. Regulators
4. Circuit Breaker
5. Air Breaks and Disconnects
6. Instrument Transformer
7. Relays
8. Power Station Capacitors
9. Lightning Arresters
10. Battery and Chargers
FAULTS
-line to line, line to ground, 3Phase, double
line to ground

CAPACITOR
-to maintain the power factor
TRANSFORMER
- A static device that converts electrical
energy from one circuit to another by the
process of electromagnetic induction with a
change in voltage and constant frequency.
MAIN PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER
1. Magnetic core- serves as path of the magnetic flux. it
is made of laminated sheets of high grade steel
insulated from each other by coating of iron oxide or
varnish to minimize eddy current and hysteresis loss.
2. Windings – Made of copper wire
3. Insulation
4. Bushing- Used to connect the leads of winding to
external circuit
a) porcelain type – small capacity
b) condenser type – medium capacity
c) oil-type – high capacity
MAIN PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER
1. Magnetic core- serves as path of the magnetic flux. it
is made of laminated sheets of high grade steel
insulated from each other by coating of iron oxide or
varnish to minimize eddy current and hysteresis loss.
2. Windings – Made of copper wire
3. Insulation
4. Bushing- Used to connect the leads of winding to
external circuit
a) porcelain type – small capacity
b) condenser type – medium capacity
c) oil-type – high capacity
 Lamination
types

Laminated steel cores

Toroidal steel cores

Efficiency of transformers with toroidal cores is usually higher.

TRANSFORMER OIL
- Serves as coolant to lower the temperature of
the transformer.
PROPERTIES OF GOOD TRANSFORMER
OIL

1. High Di-Electric Strength

2. Low Viscosity
3. Free from Moisture and Particles
4. Absence of Alkalis, Acids & Sulfur
5. Slow Sludging Tendency
COOLING METHODS
1. Natural Radiation
2. Air Blasting
3. Oil Immersing
4. Water Immersing
OUTDOOR TYPE TRANSFORMER
- uses mineral oil (flammable)

INDOOR TYPE TRANSFORMER

- uses askarel or pyranol (non-flammable)

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMER
ACCORDING TO COOLING METHOD
1. AA - dry type, self cooled (using natural radiation)
2. AA/FA- dry type, forced air (air blasting)
3. OA - oil- immersed, self-cooled (natural radiation)
4. OA/FA- oil- immersed, forced air (oil immersed & fan)
5. OA/FOA - oil- immersed, forced air, forced oil
6. OA/FOW - oil- immersed, forced oil, forced water
 TWO TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
1. According to Use
a.) Step down transformer, N1 > N2 (higher - lower)
b.) Step up transformer, N1 < N2 (lower- higher)
2. According to Core-Used
a.) Core Type b.) Shell Type

Primary Secondar
Circuit y Circuit
Transformer ratings: Information Plate
Rated voltage, currents, and (or)
power is typically shown on the
transformer’s information plate.

Additional information, such as per-

unit series impedance, type of
cooling, etc. can also be specified on
the plate.
ELEMENTARY THEORY OF
AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER
IDEAL TRANSFORMER

- Is one which has no losses such that its

windings have no ohmic, resistance, these is no
2
magnetic leakage and hence has no I R and core
loss.

Considering an ideal transformer whose

secondary is open and whose primary is connected
to sinusoidal alternating voltage V1. The potential
difference causes an alternating current to flow in
the primary. Since the primary coil is purely
inductive and there is no output (open circuit). The
primary draws the magnetizing current Iµ only.
 The function of this current is merely to
magnetize the core, it is small in magnitude and
lags V1 by 90°. Iµ produces an alternating flux ø
which is proportional to the current and hence in
phase with it. The changing flux is linked in both
primary and secondary windings. Therefore it
produces self-induced emf in the primary which is
equal to and opposition to V1. it is also known as
counter emf or back emf of the primary.
 Similarly, in the secondary, an induced emf, E2 is
produced which is known as mutually induced emf is
anti- phase with V1 and its magnitude is proportional
to the rate of change of flux and the number of
secondary turns.

Ø
Iµ

-E1 E2 V1
 ø
øm 1/4f

T = 1/f

Let: N1 = no. of turns in primary

N2 = no. of turns in secondary
Øm = max. flux in core = ßm·A
F = frequency of AC in Hz
Flux increase from it’s zero values to maximum value Øm in
one quarter of a cycle (1/4f sec)
Ave. rate of change in flux = Øm/1/4f
e1=e2 = 4fØm wb/s or volt

Rate of change in flux means induced Emf in volts

Ave. rate per turn = 4fØm volt
Rms value of Emf per turn = 1.11 x 4fØm volt
Rms value of Emf in the whole primary winding

NOTE:
E1 = 4.44fN1Øm volt
Emf per turn is the same in both primary
E1 = 4.44fN1 (ßm x A) and secondary windings.
E2 =4.44fN2Øm volt In an ideal transformer on NO – load
and
FARADAY’S LAW

- The induced voltage in the conductor is

directly proportional to the rate of change of flux
and the no. of turn of conductor.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

I1 R1 X1 R2 X2 I2

V1 P -E1 E2 P2 V2
1

RATIO OF TRANSFORMATION, a

V1 E1 I2 N1
a = = = =
V2 E2 I1 N2
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
 An iron core reactor is to be connected across the 110V,
60HZ supply. Neglecting the resistance drop, determine the
number of flux lines which must be set-up in the core if the
turn are 400. Determine the cross-sectional area of the core
necessary for this reactor in the flux density should not
exceed 60,000 lines per square inch.
SOLUTION:

R=0 110 V
= 103,228.23 lines or maxwell
110V E 400 TURNS /
60Hz
A =103, 228.23 lines/ (60,000 lines/in2)
A =1.72  in 2
The current taken by the reactor w/ 400 turns connected
across 110V, 60Hz line is 1.5A. The power input is 65
watts. If the hot resistance of the coil is 0.5, determine the
iron loss. What is the maximum flux build-up in the core?
1.5
A
P in = 65 63.88 Watts
-E 400
W
110 Turns
V

= 109.25 V

∅=1.03 mWb
A transformer has a 800 turns on it’s primary winding &
160 turns on the secondary. The input is 150 KVA
@2300V. Determine the: a.) ratio of transformation b.)
rated secondary voltage c.) full-load secondary current d.)
full-load primary current.
a.) c.)
= =

a=5 = 326.09 A

b.) d.)
=
= 2300/5

V 2=𝟒𝟔𝟎 𝑽 = 65.21 A
A transformer is rated at 2000V/230V, 7.5KVA, 60 cycles,
rp=8Ω, rs=0.07Ω. When 2300V are applied to the primary of
1000 turns, the input when secondary loaded is 6000 watts &
3 amperes. Assume zero leakage flux, determine the
magnitude of the primary induced voltage.
Rp Xp Rs Xs

p.f = 0.8
V1 -E1 E2 V2

∟-0.34
∟0 + = 2318.30 V
= 230 ∟0 + ∟-
∟0 +
∟ -0.34 V
∟179.66 +
V1 = 2342.13 L -0.337 Volts
 SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT
1.) REFERRED TO Vector Diagram (Lagging)
I2
PRIMARYRe ‘ Xe
a
+ ‘ 𝑉1

𝑉1 𝑎𝑉 2 I2
𝑋𝑒 ′
𝑎𝑉 2 a
-
I2
𝑅𝑒 ′
𝐼2 a
𝑎
Percent Voltage
Regulation
% VR = x 100 %

𝐕 𝟏 −𝐚 𝐕 𝟐
% 𝐕𝐑= 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐚 𝐕𝟐
2.REFFERED TO SECONDARY VECTOR DIAGRAM:
(LEADING) I 2

Re Xe “ I 2 ø

’’
I2
Xe
𝑉1 I2Re’
𝑎
V2 ’
PERCENT VOLTAGE REGULATION

x
EXAMPLE:
1. Given a 10KVA , 1Ø transformer operating at
240/120V , 60HZ with the following
specification:
r1 =0.13Ω r2 = 0.03Ω
x1 = 0.20Ω x2 = 0.05Ω
WC = 85 Watts IN ≈ 0
Calculate the %VR at full-load , 0.8 p.f. lagging .
SOLUTION:

Primary Equivalent Circuit

R e ‘ Xe I2/a
‘ = 0.13 +
0.25
V1 aV2
= 0.2 +
0.4

= 41.67 ∟-
41.67 ∟-36.87 A
 x
+ +
= 240 ∟0˚ + [(41.67 ∟ -36.87)(0.25+j0.4)]
=258.43 ∟1.57˚ V

%𝑽𝑹=𝟕.𝟔𝟖%
Using:
Secondary Equivalent Circuit: x

R e “ Xe “ I 2
0“

𝑉1
𝑎 𝑉2
= =
0.0625 Ω 0.1 Ω

-36.87 A
0 + (83.33 ∟-36.87)(0.063 + j0.1)
∟1.56 V

7.71
Percent Impedance
%R = x 100%
%X = x 100%

Also per unit values

Per unit R =
Per unit X =

Where: I = Nominal Rated

Current
V = Nominal Rated
Voltage
For values of R and X to give the same values when
converting to it’s equivalent primary and secondary
circuits, the %R and %X or Rpu and Xpu of the
primary and secondary circuit must be equal.
Example:
Given:
R1=1Ω, R2=0.3Ω, 6KVA, 440/120V

% R1 =

% R2 =
EXACT TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT
Referred to Primary
CIRCUIT
IP
rP xP 𝑎2 r s 𝑎2 x s I s / a
IN

VP I
rm aV s
I xm
APPOXIMATE TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT (Referred to Primary)
IP
rP xP 𝑎2 r s 𝑎 2 x s Is /a

VP aV s
2.) Given:15KVA 2300/230 60Hz
r1=2.5Ω r2=0.02 Ω
x1=10.1 Ω x2=0.09 Ω
Wc=110W IN ≈0
Calculate the %VR at Half Load, 0.866 p.f. leading.

R e ‘ Xe I2/a
‘

V1 aV2
%𝑽𝑹=−𝟎.𝟕𝟔𝟔%,𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠
 3.) Given:25KVA 2400/240V 60Hz
r1=2.65Ω r2=0.019Ω
x1=8.95Ωx2=0.085Ω
a.) Calculate the %VR at a load of 12KW, 0.8 p.f. leading.
b.) Calculate the %VR at 10% underload, 0.866 p.f.
SE Lagging.Re “ Xe “ I2
C
V1
a V
2

a.)
% 𝐕𝐑=−𝟏 .𝟔𝟖 %
b.)

%𝑽𝑹=𝟓.𝟎𝟕%
3.) A 20KVA with a=16.67, 60Hz transformer is connected to
230kV Luzon grid. The expected load is 15KW, 0.707 p.f.
lagging. Determine the % VR if r1=0.1Ω, r2=0.006Ω,
x1=0.2Ω & x2=0.012Ω. Re ‘ Xe I2/a
‘
Luzon Load V1=230kV aV2
Grid 230k
V
 ; S = P + jQ
S=
P=
Q=
S
Q
𝜃
P

%VR = 0.004%
 5.) A 500KVA, 1Ø, 13000/2400V transformer has %X=4%
and %R=1%, X2=0.025Ω and R2=0.055Ω. Find x1, r1
and the full-load cu loss.
Re “ Xe “ I2 a.)
SE
C
V
1 V
a 2
b.)

𝐏𝐜𝐮 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬=𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬

 5.) Given: 100KVA 2300/230 60Hz
r1=2.14Ω r2=0.214Ω
x1=0.214Ωx2=0.0214Ω
Calculate the %VR at full-load, 0.9 p.f. lagging.

PEC 𝐼2
𝑎

𝑉1 a
% 𝐕𝐑=𝟒𝟐.𝟖𝟐 %
Transformer Efficiency & Losses

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Note:
Pin = V1 I1 pf1 = V1 I1 cosØ1
Po = V2 I2 pf2 = V2 I2 cosØ2
Plosses = Pcu + Pcore
Considering Primary Side
Primary Input =

Differentiate WRT

For n to be maximum,
. Hence the above equation becomes
𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝐦𝐚𝐱 =𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝐅𝐋
√ 𝐏 𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐞
𝟐
𝐈𝟏 𝐑 𝐞 ′
1.) A transformer rated 100KVA has a core loss of 1KW and
a copper loss of 1.5KW. a.) Calculate the KVA loading
of which the efficiency is maximum. b.) Determine the
maximum efficiency of 0.8 pf.
a.)

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝐦𝐚𝐱 =𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 𝐤𝐕𝐀

b.)

𝜼 𝒎𝒂𝒙 =𝟗𝟕. 𝟎𝟓%

2.) A 20KVA, 440/220V transformer has a core loss of
324W. The cu loss is 100W at half load.
Determine:
a. The efficiency when delivering full-load current at 0.8 pf.
b. The percent full load when the efficiency is maximum.
a.) b.)

𝜼𝑭𝑳 =𝟗𝟓 .𝟔𝟕 % % 𝐅𝐋 =𝟗𝟎 %

3.) A 400/100V transformer has an effective primary
resistance of 0.3Ω and a secondary resistance of 0.02Ω.
It’s core loss has a 150W. Calculate secondary current at
which maximum efficiency will occur at it’s value of 1pf.

𝑰 𝟐 @𝒎𝒂𝒙 =𝟔𝟐 . 𝟎𝟐 𝑨
4.) The efficiency of a 400KVA transformer is 98.77% when
delivering full load at 0.8 pf and 99.13% at half load, 1pf.
Calculate the full load cu loss and core loss.
5.) A 11000/230V, 150KVA, 1Ø, 50Hz transformer has
a core loss of 1.4KW & full-load copper loss of
1.6KW. Determine:
a. The KVA load for maximum efficiency & the
value of maximum efficiency at unity pf.
b. The efficiency @half-load, 0.8 pf leading.

a.)
b.)

𝜼𝟏/ 𝟐 𝑭𝑳=𝟗𝟕 . 𝟎𝟗 %
6.) A 200KVA transformer has an efficiency of 98% @full-
load. If the maximum efficiency occurs @3-quarters of
full load, calculate the efficiency @half-load. Assume
negligible magnetizing current & p.f. of 0.8 at all loads.
𝛈 =𝟗𝟕 . 𝟗𝟐 %
( )𝟏
𝟐
𝐅𝐋

𝐏𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐞=𝟏.𝟏𝟕𝟓𝐤𝐖
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST & OPEN CIRCUIT
TEST

I. Open Circuit with Test / No Load Test

W reading = core loss = Ph+e

 HERE!!!!!!!!!!!
II. Short Circuit Test
W A

V2 = 0

W reading = copper loss = Pcu =2I1 r1 +2 I2

r2 2
2
= I1 re’
= I2 re”
1.) Given: 500KVA 14000/4000V 60Hz
SCT OCT
V = 1260V V = 4000V
I = 358A I =59A
W = 39,200W W = 31,000W
a. Calculate the F.L. %VR & %n @¾F.L. 0.866 lagging pf.
b. Find the F.L. & maximum efficiency @pf 0.8 lagging.
c. Calculate the all day efficiency for the following loadings.
F.L. 0.8 8Hrs
¾ F.L. 0.9 7Hrs
60% F.L. 1.0 6Hrs
No Load 0 3Hrs
24Hrs
a.) Re’ Xe’ I2/a

V1 aV2
% 𝑽𝑹=𝟓 .𝟒𝟏 %

𝜼𝟑 =𝟗𝟖 . 𝟑𝟗 %
𝑭𝑳
𝟒
b.)

𝜼𝑭𝑳 =𝟗𝟖 .𝟎𝟖 %

𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙 =𝟗𝟖 . 𝟐𝟗 %
c.)

5000kVA (3/4) (0.9) 7hrs = 23625 kwhr

5000kVA (0.6) (1) 6hr = 18000 kwhr
73625.00 kwhr

39200
39200 84.67 kwhr
552.62 kwhr
31000 x 24hrs = 744.0 kwhr
ADE =

𝑨𝑫𝑬=𝟗𝟖 . 𝟐𝟕 %
By Using Secondary Equivalent Circuit
Re” Xe” I2

V1
__
a V
2

Assuming Lagging Power Factor

V__
1a

” e
Ø V2 I2X
I2R

I Sin
e”

2
V
2 Ø
in
I2 R

2S
e”

V
Ø
 1.) The following data were obtained when a short circuit test
was performed upon a 100KVA, 2400/240V distribution
transformer: Esc=72V, Isc=41.6V, Psc=1180W. All instrument
are on the high side during the short circuit test. Calculate the
%VR at a power factor pf 0.75 lagging.
Primary side

%VR=2.75%
2.) A 200KVA transformer with impedance of 5% & the power
factor of the load is 85%. The primary voltage is 6000V, while
the copper loss is 5KW. Find the percent regulation.

%IZ = 5%
%IR=

Xpu = 0.043pu

%VR = 4.43%
3.) A 150KVA, single phase transformer supplies a 100KVA
at 50% lagging power factor. The transformer winding
impedance is 2% resistance & 5% reactance based on
150KVA. Determine the voltage regulation of the
transformer of this load. Assume 100% voltage.
@150kVA  %IR = 2% and %IX = 5%

%VR = 3.56%
4.) A short circuit test was performed upon a 10KVA,
2300/230V transformer with the following results:
Esc=137V, Psc=192W, & Isc=4.34A. Calculate the %VR
@ a lagging power factor of 0.707.

Xe’ = 30.02%
Rpu= ;
Rpu=

%VR = 5.41%
HYSTERESIS and EDDY CURRENT LOSS
1.) When 120V, 60Hz is applied to the primary windings of
a transformer, the core loss is 240W. When 50V, 25Hz is
applied the core loss is 50W. Determine the core loss
when 230V, 50Hz is applied to the primary windings.

ke = 0.0143
kh = 0.1885

𝑷 𝑪𝑶𝑹𝑬 @ 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝑽 ,𝟓𝟎 𝑯𝒛 =𝟖𝟔𝟒 .𝟕𝟗𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

2.) The eddy current and hysteresis loss of a 4400V, 60Hz,
single phase transformer are 280W and 560W
respectively. Determine the core loss when the transformer
is connected across a 4600V, 50Hz source.
Ph = kh
Pe = ke kh =
ke = kh =9.67 x
ke= 1.45 x

−5
𝑃 𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐸 @ 4600𝑉 ,50 𝐻𝑧 =(1,45 𝑥 10 )¿
𝐏𝐂𝐎𝐑𝐄 @ 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝐕 , 𝟓𝟎𝐇𝐳=𝟗𝟕𝟕 . 𝟒𝟏𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬
3.) In a 400V, 50 cycle per second transformer, the total iron
loss is 2500W. When the supplied potential difference is
220V, 25 c/s, the corresponding loss is 850W. Calculate
the eddy current loss at normal frequency and potential
difference.

ke = 0.01353

Pe = 0.01353

Pe = 2164.8 Watts
PARALLELING OF
TRANSFORMER
Paralleling of Transformer
Reasons for Paralleling
1. To increase the capacity of the system in order to
supply greater loads.
2. To reduce/divide the capacity for the convenience of
in handling, transport and maintenance.
3. To reduce the capacity of reserve of space to ensure
continuous operation.
Condition for Paralleling
1. Both must have the same ratio of transformer (a1=a2).
2. Both must have the same voltage ratio.
3. Observe polarities carefully.
4. The equivalent impedance must vary in inverse
proportion to their respective capacity.
5. 1
6. R & X must be added to the different transformation so
that each will deliver secondary currents proportional to
their loads. %Z1 = %Z2
 R1 X1 R2 X2

L
V1 O
A V2
D

R1 X1 R2 X2
Considering Secondary Equivalent Circuit (lagging pf)

Re1 Re2
” ”
1I2 Xe1 2I2 Xe2
V1 ” ” I2
a
L

1V2 =
O
A

2V2
D

I2 = 1I2 + 2I2
I 2 = IL
2I2 = IL – 1I2
Multiply by Respective Transformation Ratio

Same Voltage Ratio

1𝐼2=𝑎2 𝐼𝐿2𝑍𝑒−1 {𝑉} rsub {2} left ({𝑎} rsub {1} − {𝑎} rsub {2} right )} over { ¿¿
CASE I: Unequal Ratio (a1 ≠ CASE II: Equal Ratios (a1 =
a2) a2)
1 1
2 2

CASE III: a1 ≠ a2 at No-Load (IL

= 0)
1
2
1.) Given: 2 – 75KVA, 2200/220V
1Ze” = 0.5+j0.3Ω
2Ze” = 0.6+j1Ω
SL = 125KVA,0.8 pf lagging
Find the % loading of T1 & T2.

1 I2 =_2Ze” IL___
1Ze” + 2Ze”
1I2 = ____(0.6+j1)_____ 125KV -1
(0.5+j0.3)+(0.6+j1)A220 ∟-cos
0.8
1I2 = 339.0967 ∟-27.597 A V
2 I2 =_1Ze” IL___
1Ze” + 2Ze”
2I2 = ____(0.5+j0.3)____
125KV ∟-cos
-1
(0.5+j0.3)+(0.6+j1)
A220 0.8
2I2 = 194.540 ∟-55.167 A V
S1 = (220)(389.1)
= 85.6KVA
S2 = (220)(194.55)
= 42.8KVA

%T1 =
68.48%

%T2 = 34.24%
2.) Given: Transformer A 100KVA 2300/230V
%IR=5% %IX=10%
Transformer B 50KVA 2300/230V
%IR=6% %IX=8%
Determine the KVA loading of each transformer of 0.8 pf
lagging if load is equal to 125KVA.
1
1
2
2
1Ze”=0.0265+j0.0528Ω
2Ze”=0.0635+j0.0846Ω
Set Transformer A as Basis
2
2

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝟏=𝟗𝟖. 𝟎𝟖∟− 𝟖𝟗.𝟎𝟕𝐤𝐕𝐀

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝟐=𝟐𝟕. 𝟑𝟓∟− 𝟐𝟖.𝟖𝟑𝐤𝐕𝐀

Set Transformer B as Reference

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝟏=𝟗𝟕. 𝟗𝟎∟− 𝟑𝟗. 𝟒𝟐𝒌𝑽𝑨

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝟐=𝟐𝟕. 𝟒𝟒∟ −𝟐𝟖. 𝟖𝟕𝒌𝑽𝑨

 3.) Two transformers are to be parallel on both their high and
low tension rides. Their characteristics are as follows:
No.1 100KVA 6900/230V %IR=1.25% %IX=5.4%
No.2 200KVA 6900/230V %IR=1.34% %IX=5.53%
At a load of 300KVA, 0.8 pf lagging. Determine the KVA and
currents supplied by each transformer.
1
Transformer 1 as reference
1

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝟏=𝟔𝟏 . 𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟓𝐤𝐕𝐀

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝟐=𝟐𝟑𝟖 .𝟖𝟐𝟕𝟗 𝐤𝐕𝐀

4.) Given: Transformer 1 50KW 13200/2350V
1Re”=0.635 1Xe”=1.266
Transformer 2 50KW 13200/2300V
2Re”=0.656 2Xe”=1.38
Find the secondary current and the KVA loading of each transformer.
a.) If IL=0
b.) If IL=30A, with pf 0.8 lagging.
a.) 1

𝟏 𝑰 𝟐=𝟏𝟕.𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟒∟ −𝟔𝟑.𝟗𝟗𝟖𝟓 𝑨
2

𝟐 𝑰 𝟐=𝟏𝟔.𝟕𝟕𝟖𝟔∟𝟏𝟏𝟔 .𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝑨
AUTO TRANSFORMER
 AUTO-
TRANSFORMER
I1
a

Iab

b I2
V1

Icb V2

I2 = Iab + Icb
Power delivered to the load w/o transformation = Vcb I1 = V2I1

Power transformed = V2(I2-I=

1) Power developed to load through the
= Vcb(Icb) core by transformer action.
= (Vab)I1
= (V1-V2)I1

Capacity of rating of Autotransformer = V1I1

= V2I2

Rating of a 2-Winding Transformer = Size of Core = KVA Rating

= V2(I2-I1)
= (V1-V2)I1
Rating of an Auto-Transformer =

Therefore: VA Rating of Transformer

𝒂𝒏
= Rating of 2-Winding
¿
𝒂𝒏 − 𝟏
Voltage Equation: V1 = aV2 + I1(re’+jxe’)
Where: re’ = rab + (rbc)
xe’ = xab + (xbc)
POWER TRANSFORMED POWER TRANSFORMED

¿𝑷 𝟐𝑾 [ 𝒂 𝑨 −𝟏 ]
¿ 𝑷𝟐 𝑾
[ 𝟏−
𝟏
𝒂𝑨 ]
Step-
Step-up down
1.) The core of a 50KVA, 2-winding is used for an
autotransformer with a voltage rating of 360/120V. What
is the maximum possible rating for an auto-transformer?

Kva rating of Auto-transformer =

kVA rating of Auto-transformer = 75kVA

 2.) Given:
I1 I2

240 120 360

V V V 120
V
Size of Core =
Find 120KVA
the currents when connected as an
Autotransformer.

𝑰 𝟐=𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑨
𝑰 𝟏=𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑨
 3.) Given a two-winding transformer rated 200KVA, 2400/240V, 60Hz.
The primary and secondary resistance are 0.5Ω and 0.0055Ω
respectively while the primary and secondary reactance are 2.8Ω and
0.03Ω respectively. The 2-winding is used as auto-transformer with
rated V1=2640V and V2=240V. Find the %VR at unity pf.

V1 V2 2640 b
V 240
c V
re’=

xe’=
% 𝑽𝑹=𝟒 . 𝟗𝟓𝟕𝟕 %
4.) A 20KVA, 500V load is to be supplied by an ideal step-up
auto-transformer from a 400V source. Find the current in the
common winding.

I2
a

I1 Iab
b
V2
V1 Ibc
c

𝑰 𝒃𝒄 =𝟏𝟎 𝑨
 5.) A 10KVA, 440/110, 1Ø transformer has an efficiency of 96%
at a rated load of unity pf. The full-load cu-loss is 250W. If the
transformer is to be connected as a 550/110V auto-transformer,
determine it’s efficiency when supplying full-load at 85% pf.
As a 2-Winding Transformer As an Auto Transformer

12.5 𝑘𝑉𝐴 (0.85)

𝜂 𝐴= 𝑥 100 %
( 12.5 𝑘𝑉𝐴 ) ( 0.85 ) +250 𝑊 +166.67 𝑊
𝜼 𝑨 =𝟗𝟔 . 𝟐𝟑 %
6.) An auto-transformer having a primary voltage of 116V and a
secondary voltage of 80V delivers a load of 4KW at unity pf.
Calculate the power transformed and the power conducted
from the source to load.
Power Transformed=

Power Transformed = 1800Watts

Power Conducted =
= 4kW – 1800W
Power Conducted = 2200Watts
POTENTIAL & CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
Instrument transformers
Two special-purpose transformers are uses to take measurements: potential and
current transformers.
A potential transformer has a high-voltage primary, low-voltage secondary, and
very low power rating. It is used to provide an accurate voltage samples to
instruments monitoring the power system.
A current transformer samples the current in a line and reduces it to a safe and
measurable level. Such transformer consists of a secondary winding wrapped
around a ferromagnetic ring with a single primary line (that may carry a large
current )running through its center. The ring holds a small sample of the flux from
the primary line. That flux induces a secondary voltage.
Windings in current transformers are loosely coupled: the
mutual flux is much smaller than the leakage flux. The
voltage and current ratios do not apply although the
secondary current is directly proportional to the primary.
Current transformers must be short-circuited at all times
since very high voltages can appear across their terminals.
Current transformers
Potential transformers
Potential transformers
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Three-Phase Transformer
 Large scale generation of electric power is usually 3-phase at generated voltages
of 13.2 KV or somewhat higher. Transmission is generally accomplished at
higher voltages of 110,132,275,400 and 750 KV for which purpose 3-phase
transformers are necessary to step up the generated voltage to that of the
transmission line.
 Next, at a load centres, the transmission voltages are reduced to distribution
voltages of 6600,4600 and 2300 volts.
 Further, at most of the consumers, the distribution voltages are still reduced to
utilization voltages of 440,220 or 110 volts.
 Years ago, it was a common practice to use suitably interconnected three single-
phase transformers instead of a single 3-phase transformer.
 But these days, the latter is gaining popularity because of improvement in
design and manufacture but principally because of better acquaintance of
operating men with the three-phase type.
 As compared to a bank of single-phase transformers, the main advantages of a
3-phase transformer are that it occupies less floor space for equal rating, weighs
less costs about 15% less and further, that only one unit is to be handled and
connected.
 Like single-phase transformers, the three-phase transformers are also of the
core type or shell type.
 The basic principle of a 3-phase transformer is illustrated in Fig. 31.1 in
which only primary windings have been shown interconnected in star and put
across 3-phase supply.
 The three cores are 120˚ apart and their empty legs are shown in contact with
each other. The centre leg, formed by these three, carries the flux produced by
the three phase currents IR,IY and IB; As at any instant IR+IY+IB = 0, hence
the sum of three fluxes is also zero.
 Therefore, it will make no difference if the common leg is removed. In that
case any two legs will act as the return for the third just as in a 3-phase
system any two conductors act as the return for the current in the third
conductor.
 This improved design is shown in Fig. 31.2(a) where dotted rectangles
indicate the three windings and numbers in the cores and yokes represent the
directions and magnitudes of fluxes at a particular instant.
 It will be seen that at any instant, the amount of ‘up’ flux any leg is equal to
the sum of ‘down’ fluxes in the other two legs. The core type transformers are
usually wound with circular cylindrical coils.
 20

20

10

10
Coi 20 10
l

Fig.
31.2(a)
 In a similar way, three single-phase shell type transformers can be
combined together to form a 3-phase shell type unit.
 But some saving in iron can be achieved in constructing a single 3-phase
transformer as shown in Fif.31.3.
 It does not differ from three single-phase transformers put side by side.
Saving iron is due to the joint use of the magnetic paths between the coils.
 The three phases, in this case, are more independent than they are in the
core type transformers, because each phase has a magnetic circuit
independent of the other.
 One main drawback in a 3-phase transformer is that if any one phase
becomes disabled, then the whole transformer has to be ordinarily
removed from service for repairs (the shell type may be operated open ∆ or
Vee but this is not always feasible).
 However, in the case of a 3-phase bank of single-phase transformers, if
one transformer goes out of order, the system can still be run open-∆ at
reduced capacity or the faulty transformer can be readily replaced by a
single spare.
 STAR/STAR & DELTA/DELTA
CONNECTION OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Star/Star or Y/Y Connection
This connection is most economical for small, high voltage
transformers because the number of turns/phase and the amount of
insulation required is minimum (as phase voltage is only 1/√3 of line
voltage). In Fig.31.4 is shown a bank of 3 transformers connected in Y
on both the primary and the secondary sides. The ratio of line voltages
on the primary and secondary sides is the same as the transformation
ratio of each transformer. However, there is a phase shift of 30˚
between the phase voltages and line voltages both on the primary and
secondary sides. Of course, line voltages on both sides as well as
primary voltages are respectively in phase with each other. This
connection works satisfactorily only if the load is balanced. With the
unbalanced load to the neutral, the neutral point shifts thereby making
the three line-to-neutral (i.e. phase) voltages unequal. The effect of
unbalanced loads can be illustrated by placing a single load between
phase (or coil) a and the neutral on the secondary side. The power to
the load has to be supplied by primary phase (or coil) A.
This primary coil A cannot supply the required power because it is in
series with primaries B and C whose secondaries are open. Under this
condition, the primary coils B and C act as very high impedances so that
primary coil can obtain but very little current through them from the line.
Hence, secondary coil a cannot supply any appreciable power. In fact, a
very low resistance approaching a short-circuit may be connected between
point a and the neutral and only a very small amount of current will flow.
This, as said above, is due to the reduction of voltage Ean because of
neutral shift. In other words, under short circuit conditions, the neutral is
pulled too much towards coil a. This reduces Ean but increases Ebn and Ein
(however line voltages EAB,EBC and ECA are unaffected). On the primary
side, EAN will be practically reduced to zero whereas EBN and ECN will rise
to nearly full primary line voltage. This difficulty of shifting (or floating)
neutral can be obviated by connecting the primary neutral (shown dotted in
the figure) back to the generator so that primary coil A can take its
required power from between its line and the neutral. It should be noted
that if a single phase load is connected between the lines a and b, there
will be a similar but less pronounced neutral shift which results in an
overvoltage on one or more transformers.
C c

B b

A a
R
N n
B b
A a

C c
0˚ Angular
Displacement
Fig. 31.4
Another advantage of stabilizing the primary neutral by connecting it to
neutral of the generator is that it eliminates distortion in the secondary
phase voltages. This is explained as follows. For delivering a sine wave
of voltage, it is necessary to have a sine wave of flux in the core, but on
account of the characteristics of iron, a sine wave of flux requires a
third harmonic component in the exciting current. As the frequency of
this component thrice the frequency of the circuit, at any given instant,
it tends to flow either towards or away from the neutral point in all the
three transformers. If the primary neutral is isolated, the triple
frequency current cannot flow. Hence, the flux in the core cannot be a
sine wave and so the voltages are distorted. But if the primary neutral is
earthed i.e. Joined to the generator neutral, then this provides a path for
the triple-frequency currents and e.mfs. and the difficulty is overcome.
Another way of avoiding this trouble of oscillating neutral is to provide
each of the transformers with a third or tertiary winding of relatively
low KVA rating. This tertiary winding is connected in ∆ and provides a
circuit in which the triple-frequency component of the magnetising
current can flow (with an
isolated neutral, it could not). In that case, a sine wave of voltage
applied to the primary will result in a sine wave of phase voltage in
the secondary. The advantage of this connection is that insulation
is stressed only to the extent of line to neutral voltage i.e. 58% of
the line voltage.
Delta-Delta or ∆-∆ Connection
This connection is economical for large, low-voltage transformers in which
insulation problem is not so urgent, because it increases the number of
turns/phase. The transformer connections and voltage triangles are shown in
Fig. 31.5. The ratio of transformation between primary and secondary line
voltage is exactly the same as that of each transformer. Further, the
secondary voltage triangle abc occupies the same relative position as the
primary voltage triangle ABC i.e. there is no angular displacement between
the two. Moreover, there is no internal phase shift between phase and line
voltages on either side as was the case in Y-Y connection. This connection
has the following advantages:
1. In order that the output voltage be sinusoidal, it is necessary that the
magnetising current of the transformer must contain a third harmonic
component. In this case, the third harmonic component of the magnetising
current can flow in the ∆-connected transformer primaries without flowing
in the line wires. The three phases are 120˚ apart which is 3 × 120 = 360˚
with respect to the third harmonic, hence it merely circulates in the ∆.
Therefore, the flux is sinusoidal which results in sinusoidal voltages.
 2. No difficulty is experienced from unbalanced loading as was
the case in Y-Y connection. The three-phase voltages remain
practically constant regardless of load imbalance.
3. An added advantage of this connection is that if one
transformer becomes disabled, the system can continue to operate
in open-delta or in V-V although with reduced available capacity.
The reduced capacity is 58% and not 66.7% of the normal value,
as explained in Art. 31.7.
C c

B b

A a

B b
A a

C c
0˚ Angular
Displacement
Fig. 31.5
C c

B b

A a

a b

a
a c
c
30˚ Angular
Displacement
Fig. 31.6
C c

B b

A a

Ba b

A n

C c
30˚ Angular Displacement
Fig. 31.7
Wye/Delta or Y/∆ Connection
The main use of this connection is at the substation end of the
transmission line where the voltage is to be stepped down. The
primary winding is Y-connected with grounded neutral as shown in
Fig. 31.6. The ratio between the secondary and primary line
voltage is 1/√3 times the transformation ratio of each transformer.
There is a 30˚ shift between the primary and secondary line
voltages which means that a Y-∆ transformer bank cannot be
paralleled with either a Y-Y or a ∆-∆ bank. Also, third harmonic
currents flows in the ∆ to provide a sinusoidal flux.
Delta/Wye or ∆/Y Connection
This connection is generally employed where it is necessary to step
up the voltage as for example, at the beginning of high tension
transmission system. The connection is shown in Fig. 31.7. The
neutral of the secondary is grounded for providing 3-phase 4-wire
service. In recent years, this connection has gained considerable
popularity because it can be used to serve both the 3-phase power
equipment and the single-phase lighting circuits.
This connection is not open to the objection of a floating neutral
and voltage distortion because the existence of a ∆-connection
allows a path for the third-harmonic currents. It would be observed
that the primary and secondary line voltages and line currents are
out of phase with each other by 30˚ shift, it is impossible to parallel
such a bank with a ∆-∆ or Y-Y bank of transformers even though
the voltage ratios are correctly adjusted. The ratio of secondary of
primary voltage is √3 times the transformation ratio of each
transformer.
Example 1. A 3-phase, 50-Hz transformer has a delta-connected primary
and star-connected secondary, the line voltages being 22,000V and
400V respectively. The secondary has a star-connected balanced load at
0.8 power factor lagging. The line current on the primary side is 5A.
Determine the current in each coil of the primary and in each secondary
line. What is the output of transformer in KW?

22000 5A 400
V √3
V

Fig.
31.8
Solution. It should be noted that in three-phase transformers, the
phase transformation ratio is equal to the turn ratio but the terminal
or the voltages depend upon the method of connection employed.
The ∆-Y connection is shown in Fig. 31.8.
;

𝑷 𝒐 =𝟏𝟓𝟐 . 𝟒𝟐 𝒌𝑾
Example 2. A 500-kVA, 3-phase, 50-Hz transformer has a voltage ratio
(line voltages) of 33/11-kV and is delta-star connected. The resistances
per phase are high voltage 35Ω, low voltage 0.876Ω and iron loss is
3050W. Calculate the value of efficiency at full-load and one-half of
full load respectively (a) at unity p.f. and (b) 0.8 p.f.

SOLUTION: Transformation Ratio :

Re”=
Full-load condition
2
Full-load total Cu-loss = 3 × (500/11√3) × 2.172 = 4,490 W
Total full-load losses = 4,490 + 3,050 = 7,540W;
Output at unity p.f. = 500 kW
F.L. Efficiency = 500,000/507,540 = 0.9854 or 98.54%;
Output at 0.8 p.f. = 400 kW
Efficiency = 400,000/407,540 = 0.982 or 98.2%
Half-load condition
Output at unity p.f. = 250 kW
2
Cu losses = (1/2) ×4,490 = 1,122 W
Total losses = 3,050 + 1,122 = 4,172 W
H.L. Efficiency = 250,000/254,172 = 0.9835 = 98.35%
Output at 0.8 p.f. = 200 kW
Efficiency = 200,000/204,172 = 0.98 or 98%
Example 3. A 3-phase, 6,600/415-V, 2,000-kVA transformer has a
per unit resistance of 0.02 and per unit leakage reactance of 0.1.
Calculate the Cu loss and regulation at full-load 0.8 p.f.

Solution:

% 𝑽𝑹=𝟕 .𝟖𝟏 %

𝐏𝐂𝐔𝐅𝐋 =𝟒𝟎 . 𝟐𝟑 𝐤𝐖
Example 4. A 120-kVA, 6,000/400-V, Y-Y, 3-ph, 50-Hz transformer
has an iron loss of 1,600W. The maximum efficiency occurs at ¾
full-load. Find the efficiencies of the transformer at (a) full-load at
0.8 power factor (b) half-load at unity power factor (c) the
maximum efficiency

Solution: Since maximum efficiency occurs at ¾ full-load, Cu loss

at ¾ full-load equals iron loss of 1600W.
2

Cu loss at ¾ F.L. = 1,600W; Cu loss at F.L. = 1,600 × (4/3) = 2,845

W

(a) F.L. Output at 0.8 p.f. = 120 kVA × 0.8 = 96 kW = 96,000 W

Total loss = 1,600 + 2,845 = 4,445 W
Efficiency = (96,000/100,445) × 100 = 95.57%
 2
(b) Cu loss at ½ full-load = (1/2) × 2,845 = 710 W
Total loss = 710 +1,600 = 2,310 W
Output at ½ F.L. at u.p.f. is = 60 kW = 60,000
Efficiency = (60,000/62,310) × 100 = 96.3%

(c) Maximum efficiency occurs at ¾ full-load when iron loss equals

Cu loss.
Total loss = 2 ×1,600 = 3,200 W
Output at u.p.f. = (3/4) × 120 kW = 90 kW = 90,000 W
Input = 90,000 + 3,200 = 93,200 W
Efficiency = (90,000/93,200) × 100 = 96.57%
Example 5. A 3-phase transformer, ratio 33/6.6-kV, ∆/Y, 2-
MVA has a primary resistance of 8Ω per phase and a
secondary of 0.08Ω per phase. The percentage impedance
is 7%. Calculate the secondary voltage with rated
primary voltage and hence the regulation for full-load at
0.75 p.f. lagging conditions.

Solution: F.L secondary current =

Drop per phase = I2(R02cosØ+X02sinØ)
= 175 × [(0.1876×0.75)+(1.51×0.66)]
= 200 V

Secondary voltage/phase = 6,600/√3 = 3,810 V

V2 = 3,810-200 = 3,610 V

Secondary line voltage = 3,610 × √3 = 6,250 V

%Regn. = 200 × 100/3,810

= 5.23%
6.) A 5000-kVA. 3-phase transformer. 6.6/33kV, delta-wye
connected, has no load of 15kW and a full-load of 50kW. The
impedance drop at full load is 7%. Calculate the primary voltage
when a load of 3200kW at 0.8 p.f is delivered at 33kV.
SOLUTION:

Vd=

Re”=1.53Ω
Vd=70A[(1.53)(0.8)+(15.23)sin(
Vd= 725V

𝑽 𝟏 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 =𝟔𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝑽
7.) A 3-phase transformer has its primary connected in delta and its
secondary in wye. It has an equivalent resistance of 1% and an
equivalent reactance of 6%. The primary applied voltage is 6600V.
What must be the ratio of transformation in order that it will deliver
4800V at full load current and 0.8 power factor(lag).
SOLUTION:
8.) A 2000kVA, 6600/400-V, 3-phase transformer is delta-
connected on the high voltage side and star-connected on
the low-voltage side. Determine its % resistance and %
reactance drops, % efficiency and % regulation on full
load 0.8 pf. Leading given the following data:
S.C Test ; H.V Data ; 400V, 175A and 17kW
O.C Test ; L.V Data ; 400V, 150A and 15kW

%R=0.86%
%X=3.4%
%VR=-1.34%
98.04%
 TEE & OPEN DELTA
CONNECTION OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Open-Delta or V-V connection
If one of the transformers of a ∆-∆ is removed and 3-phase
supply is connected to the primaries as shown in Fig. 31.10, then
three equal 3-phase voltages will be available at the secondary
terminals on no load. This method of transforming 3-phase power
by means of only two transformers is called the open ∆-∆ or V-V
connection.
It is employed:
1. When the three-phase load is too small to warrant the installation
of full three phase transformer bank.
2. When one of the transformers in a ∆-∆ bank is disabled, so that
service is continued although at reduced capacity, till the faulty
transformer is repaired or a new one is substituted.
3. When it is anticipated that in future the load will increase
necessitating the closing of open-delta.
C c
VL
B b
VL

A a
C c

B A b a

0˚ Angular Displacement
Fig. 31.10
One important point to note is that the total load that can be carried
by a V-V bank is not two-third of the capacity of a ∆-∆ bank but it is
only 57.7% of it. That is a reduction of 15% (strictly, 15.5%) from
its normal rating. Suppose there is ∆-∆ bank of three 10-kVA
transformers. When one transformer is removed, then it runs in V-V.
The total rating of the two transformers is 20 kVA. But the capacity
of the V-V bank is not the sum of the transformer kVA ratings but
only 0.866 of it i.e. 20 × 0.866 = 17.32 or (30 × 0.577 = 17.3 kVA).
The fact that the ratio of V-capacity to ∆-capacity is 1/√3 = 57.7%
(or nearly 58%) instead of 66(2/3) percent can be proved as follows:
As seen from Fig. 31.11 (a)
∆-∆ capacity = √3•VL•VL = √3•VL(√3•IS) = 3VLIS
In Fig. 31.11 (b), it is obvious that when ∆-∆ bank becomes V-V
bank, the secondary line current IL becomes equal to the secondary
phase current IS.
V-V capacity = √3VLIL = √3VLIS
 It means that the 3-phase load which can be carried without
exceeding the ratings of the transformers is 57.7 percent of the
original load rather than the expected 66.7%.
IL =
C √3IS c
I I V
S S L
B b

A I a
S
(a)Closed-
∆ IL = IS
C c
I I V
L

Loa
S S
B b

d
A I a
S
(b) Open-∆
Fig. 31.11
 It is obvious from above that when one transformer is removed
from a ∆-∆ bank.
1. The bank capacity is reduced from 30 kVA to 30 × 0.577 = 17.3
kVA and not to 20 kVA as might be thought off-hand.
2. Only 86.6% of the rated capacity of the two remaining
transformers is available (i.e. 20 × 0.866 = 17.3 kVA). In other
words, ratio of operating capacity to available capacity of an
open-∆ is 0.866. This factor of 0.866 is sometimes called the
utility factor.
3. Each transformer will supply 57.7% of load and not 50% when
operating in V-V.
However, it is worth noting that if three transformers in a ∆-∆
are delivering their rated load and one transformer is removed,
the overload on each of the two remaining transformers is 73.2%
because.
 This over-load may be carried temporarily but some provision
must be made to reduce the load if overheating and consequent
breakdown of the remaining two transformers is to be avoided.
The disadvantages of this connection are:
1. The average power factor at which the V-bank operates is less than
that of the load. This power factor is actually 86.6% of the balanced
load power factor. Another significant point to note is that, except
for a balanced unity power factor load, the two transformers in the V-
V bank operate at different power factors.
2. Secondary terminal voltages tend to become unbalanced to a great
extent when the load is increased, this happens even when the load
is perfectly balanced.
It may, however, be noted that if two transformers are operating
in V-V and loaded to rated capacity, the addition of a third
transformer increases the total capacity by √3 or 173.2% (i.e. To
30 kVA). It means that for an increase in cost of 50% for the
third transformer, the increase in capacity is 73.2% when
converting from V-V system to a ∆-∆ system.
Power Supplied by V-V Bank
When a V-V bank of two transformers supplies a balanced 3-phase
load of power factor cosØ, then one transformer operates at a p.f. of
cos(30˚-Ø) and the other at cos(30˚+Ø). Consequently, the two
transformers will not have the same voltage regulation.
P1 = kVA cos(30˚-Ø) and P2 = kVA cos(30˚+Ø)
(a) When Ø = 0 i.e. load p.f. = 1
Each transformer will have a p.f. = cos 30˚ = 0.866
(b) When Ø = 30˚ i.e. load p.f. = 0.866
In this case, one transformer has`a p.f. Of cos(30˚-30˚) = 1 and the
other of cos(60˚-30˚) = 0.866.
(c) When Ø = 60˚ i.e. load p.f. = 0.5
In this case, one transformer will have a p.f. = cos(30˚-60˚) = cos(-
30˚) = 0.866 and the other of cos(30˚+60˚) = 0. It means that one of
the transformers will not supply any load whereas the other having a
p.f. = 0.866 will supply the entire load.
Example 1: What should be the kVA rating of each transformer in a
V-V bank when the 3-phase balanced load is 40 kVA? If a third
similar transformer is connected for operation, what is the rated
capacity? What percentage increase in rating is affected in this
way?

Solution: As pointed earlier, the kVA rating of each transformer has

to be 15% greater.

kVA/transformer = (40/2) × 1.15 = 23 kVA

∆-∆ bank rating = 23 × 3 = 69

Increase =
Example 2: A ∆-∆ bank consisting of three 20-kVA, 2300/230-V
transformers supplies a load of 40 kVA. If one transformer is
removed, find for the resulting V-V connection.
(a) kVA load carried by each transformer
(b) percent of rated load carried by each transformer
(c) total kVA rating of the V-V bank
(d) ratio of the V-V bank to ∆-∆ bank transformer ratings
(e) percent increase in load on each transformer when bank is
converted into V-V bank.

Solution: (a)

kVA load supplied by each of the two transformers = 40/√3 = 23.1 kVA
Obviously, each transformer in V-V bank does not carry 50% of the
original load but 57.7%.
(b) Percent of rated load =

carried by each transformer.

Obviously, in this case, each transformer is overloaded to the
extent of 15.5 percent.

(c) kVA rating of the V-V bank = (2×20)×0.866 = 34.64 kVA

(d)
As seen, the rating is reduced to 57.7% of the original rating.
(e) Load supplied by each transformer in ∆-∆ bank = 40/3 =
13.33 kVA
Percentage increase in load supplied by each transformer.

It is obvious that each transformer in the ∆-∆ bank

supplying 40kVA was running underloaded (13.33 vs 20 kVA)
but runs overloaded (23.1 vs 20 kVA) in V-V connection.
Example 3: A balanced 3-phase load of 150 kVA at 1000 V, 0.866
lagging power factor is supplied from 2000 V, 3-phase mains
through single-phase transformers (assumed to be ideal) connected
in (a) delta-delta (b) Vee-Vee. Find the current in the windings of
each transformer and the power factor at which they operate in each
case. Explian your calculations with circuit and vector diagrams.

Solution: (a) Delta-Delta Connection

√3 × VLILcosØ
15,000; √3 × 1000 × IL × 0.866
IL =100 A
Secondary line current = 100A
Secondary phase current = 100/√3 = 57.7A
Transformation ratio = 2000/1000 = 2
Primary phase current = 57.7/2 = 28.85 A
(b) Vee-Vee Connection
Let I be the secondary line current which is also the phase
current in V-V connection. Then
√3 × 1000 × I × 0.866 = 150,000
I = 100 A
Secondary phase current = 100 A
Primary phase current = 100 × ½ = 50 A
Transformer power factor = 86.6 percent of 0.866 = 0.75
(lag).
Example 4: (a) Two identical 1-phase transformers are connected in
open-delta across 3-phase mains and deliver a balanced load of 3000
kW at 11 kV and 0.8 p.f. Lagging. Calculate the line and phase
currents and the power factors at which the two transformers are
working.
(b) if one more identical unit is added and the open-delta is converted
to close delta, calculate the additional load of the same power factor
that can now be supplied for the same temperature rise. Also
calculate the phase and line currents.

Solution: (a) If I is the line current, then

√3 × 11,000 × I × 0.8 = 3,000,000
I = 197 A
Since, this also represents the phase current,
Secondary phase current = 197 A
Transformer p.f. = 86.6 percent of 0.8 = 0.693
(b) Additional load = 72.5 percent of 3000 = 2175 kW
Total load = 3000 + 2175 = 5175 kW
√3VLILcosØ = 5,175,000
√3×11,000×IL×0.8 = 5,175,000
IL = 340 A
Phase current = 340/√3 = 196 A
Example 5: Two transformers connected in open-delta supply a 400
kVA balanced load operating at 0.866 p.f. (lag). The load voltage is
440 V. What is the (a) kVA supplied by each transformer? (b) kW
supplied by each transformer?
Solution: The ratio of operating capacity to available capacity in an
open-∆ is 0.866. Hence, kVA of each transformer is one-half of the
total kVA load divided by 0.866.

(a) kVA of each transformer = = 230.9469 kVA

(b) The two transformers have power factors of cos (30˚-Ø) and cos
(30˚+Ø).
P1 = kVA cos (30˚-Ø) and P2 = cos (30˚+Ø)
= cos Ø = 0.866: Ø = = 30˚
P1 = 230.9469 × cos 0˚ = 230.9468kW; P2 = 230.9469 × cos 60˚ = 115.5 kW
Obviously, P1 + P2 must equal 400 × 0.86 = 346.5 kW
Scott Connection or T-T Connection
This connection by which 3-phase to three phase transformation is
accomplished with the help of two transformers as shown in Fig.
31.12. Since it was first proposed by Charles F. Scott, it is frequently
referred to Scott connection. This connection can also be used for 3-
phase to 2-phase transformation.
One of the transformers has centre taps both on the primary and
secondary windings (Fig. 31.12) and is known as the main
transformer. It forms the horizontal member of the connection (Fig.
31.13).
The other transformer has a 0.866 tap and is known as teaser
transformer. One end of both the primary and secondary of the teaser
transformer is joined to the centre taps on both primary and
secoondary of the main transformer respectively as shown in Fig.
31.13(a). The other and A of the teaser primary and the two ends B
and C of the main transformer primary are connected to the 3-phase
supply.
A a

B b
D d
C c

Fig.
31.12
The voltage diagram is shown in Fig. 31.13 (a) where the 3-phase supply
line voltage is assumed to be 100 V and a transformation ratio of unity.
For understanding as to how 3-phase transformation results from this
arrangement, it is desirable to think of the primary and secondary vector
voltages as forming geometrical T’s (from which this connection gets its
name).
In the primary voltage T of the Fig. 31.13(a), EDC and EDB are each 50 V
and differ in phase by 180˚ because both coils DB and DC are on the
same magnetic circuit and are connected in opposition. Each side of the
equilateral triangle represents 100 V. The voltage EDA being the altitude
of the equilateral triangle is equal to (√3/2) × 100 = 86.6 V, and lags
behind the voltage across the main by 90˚. The same relation holds good
in the secondary winding so that abc is a symmetrical 3-phase system.
With reference to the secondary voltage triangle of Fig.13(b), it should
be noted that for a load of unity power factor, current Idb lags behind
volts Edb by 30˚ and Ids leads Edc by 30˚. In other words, the teaser
transformer and each half of the main transformer, all operate at different
power factors.
 A Teaser
Transformer a

100

10

10
V 0
V
V 0

V
0

0
10
V

10
D d
100 C B c b
100 100
V
V V
Primarie Secondari
s Main es
A Transformer a
2/3

100
V
100

N N
V

1/3

C D B c b
ED ED 30˚ 30˚
C B
100
V Idc Idb
(a) (b)
Fig. 30.13
 Obviously, the full rating of the transformers is not being
utilized. The teaser transformer operates at only 0.866 of its rated
voltage and the main transformer coils operate at cos 30˚ 0.866
power factor,which is equivalent to the main transformer’s coils
working at 86.6 percent of this kVA rating. Hence, the capacity of
rating ratio in T-T connection is 86.6% -the same as in V-V
connection if two identical units are used, although heating in two
cases is not the same.
If, however, both the teaser primary and secondary windings
are designed for 86.6 volts only, then they will be operating at full
rating, hence the combined rating of the arrangement would
become (86.6+86.6)/(100+86.6) = 0.928 of its total rating. In other
words, ratio of kVA utilized to that available would be 0.928
which makes this connection more economical than open-∆ with
its ratio of 0.866.
 Fig. 31.14 shows the secondary of T-T connection with its
different voltages based on a nominal voltage of 100 V. As seen,
the neutral point n is one third way up from point d. If secondary
voltage and current vector diagram is drawn for load power factor
of unity, it will be found that
1. Current in teaser transformer is in phase with the voltage.
2. In the main transformer, currents leads the voltage by 30˚ across
one half but lags the voltage by 30˚ across the other half as
shown in Fig. 31.13(b).
Hence, when a balanced load of p.f. = cosØ is applied, the
teaser current will lag or lead the voltage by Ø while in the two
halves of the main transformer, the angle between current and
voltage will be (30˚-Ø) and (30˚+Ø). The situation is similar to
that existing in a V-V connection.
Example: Two T-connected transformers are used to supply a 440-V,
33-kVA balanced load from a balanced 3-phase supply of 3300 V.
Calculate (a) voltage and current rating of each coil (b) kVA rating
of the main and teaser transformer.
Solution:
a. Voltage across main primary is 3300 V whereas that across teaser
primary is = 0.866 × 3300 = 2854 V.
The current is the same in the teaser and the main and equals
the line current.
ILP = 33.000/(√3 × 3300) = 5.77 A – Fig. 31.15
The secondary main voltage equals the line voltage of 440 V
whereas teaser secondary voltage = 0.866 ×440 = 381 V
The secondary line current , ILS = ILP/k = 5.77/(440/3300) =
43.3 A as shown in Fig. 31.15.
 5.77 43.3 A
A A a

3300 440

33 kVA Load
V 2858 381 V
B V 3300 440 V b
V V
3300 440
V V
C c
Fig.
31.15
-3
(b) Main kVA = 3300 × 5.77×10 = 19 kVA

Teaser kVA = 0.866 × main kVA = 0.866 × 19 = 16.4 kVA

Parallel Operation of 3-Phase Transformers
All the conditions which apply to the parallel operation of
single phase transformers also apply to the parallel running of 3-
phase transformers but with the following additions :
1. The voltage ratio must refer to the terminal voltage of primary
and secondary. It is obvious that this ratio may not be equal to
the ratio of the number of turns per phase. For example, V1, V2
are the primary and secondary terminal voltages, then for Y/∆
connection, the turn ratio is V2/(V1/√3) = √3V2/V1.
2. The phase displacement between primary and secondary voltages
must be the same for all transformers which are to be connected
for parallel operation.
3. The phase sequence must be the same.
4. All three transformers in the 3-phase transformer bank will be of
the same construction either core or shell.
Note:
(i) In dealing with 3-phase transformers, calculations are made for
one phase only. The value of equivalent impedance used is the
equivalent impedance used is the equivalent impedance per
phase referred to secondary.
(ii) In case the impedances of primary and secondary windings are
given separately, then primary impedance must be referred to
secondary by multiplying it with (transformation ratio).
(iii) For Y/∆ or ∆/Y transformers, it should be remembered that the
voltage ratios as given in the questions, refer
2 to terminal
voltages and are quite different from turn ratio.
Example 1: A load of 500 kVA at 0.8 power factor lagging is to be
shared by two three-phase transformers A and B of equal ratings. If
the equivalent delta impedances as referred to secondary are
(2+j6)Ω for A and (2+j5)Ω for B, calculate the load supplied by
each transformer.
Solution:__ZB__ ____1____
SA = S ZA + ZB = S1+(ZA/ZB)

S = 500(0.8-j0.6) = (400-j300)
ZA/ZB = (2+j6)/(2+j5) = 1.17+j0.07
ZB/ZA = (2+j5)/(2+j6) = 0.85-j0.05
SA = (400-j300)/(2.17+0.07) = 180-j144.2 = 230.7 ∟35.05˚kVA
cosØA = 0.78 lagging
SB = (400-j300)/(1.85/0.05) = 220.1-j156 = 270.17 ∟38.42kVA
cosØB = 0.76 lagging
Example 2:
State (i) the essential and (ii) the desirable conditions to be satisfied
so that two 3-phase transformers may operate successfully in parallel.
A 2,000 kVA transformer (A) is connected in parallel with a 4,000
kVA transformer (B) to supply a 3-phase load of 5,000 kVA at 0.8 p.f.
Lagging. Determine the kVA supplied by each transformer assuming
equal no-load voltages. The percentage voltage drops in the windings
at their rated loads are as follows.

Transformer A resistance 2% reactance 8%

Transformer B resistance1.6% reactance 3%
Solution:
On the basis of 4,000 kVA
%ZA = (4,000/2,000)(2+j8) = (4+j16) = 16.5 ∟76˚
%ZB = (1.6+j3); %ZA+%ZB = (5.6+j16) = 19.8 ∟73.6˚
S = 5,000 ∟-36.9˚ = (4,000-j3,000)

SA = S __ZB__ = 5,000 ∟-36.9˚ × _16.5

ZA + ZB 19.8 ∟73.6˚
∟76˚_
= 5,000 ∟-36.9˚ × 0.832 ∟2.4˚ = 4.160 ∟-34.5˚ = (3,245-j2,355)

SB = S-SA = (4,000-j3000) – (3,425-j2355)

= (575-j645) = 864 ∟-48.3˚

cosØA = cos 34.5˚ = 0.824 (lag)

cosØB = cos 48.3˚ = 0.665 (lag)