Antenna Theory
CHAPTER 2
Fundamental Parameters of Antennas
1
Outline
2.1 Introduction 2.12 Polarization
2.2 Radiation Pattern 2.13 Input Impedance
2.3 Radiation Power Density 2.14 Antenna Radiation
Efficiency
2.4 Radiation Intensity
2.15 Antenna Vector Effective
2.5 Beamwidth Length and Equivalent Areas
2.6 Directivity 2.16 Maximum Directivity and
2.7 Numerical Techniques Maximum Effective Area
2.8 Antenna Efficiency 2.17 Friis Transmission
Equation and Radar Range
2.9 Gain Equation
2.10 Beam Efficiency 2.18 Antenna Temperature
2.11 Bandwidth
Chapter 2 2
Antenna Radiation Pattern or
Antenna Pattern
Definition: “mathematical function or a graphical representation of
the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates. In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in
the far field region and is represented as a function of the
directional coordinates. Radiation properties include power flux
density, radiation intensity, field strength, directivity, phase or
polarization.” A convenient set of coordinates is shown in Figure 2.1.
A trace of the received electric (magnetic) field at a constant
radius is called the amplitude field pattern.
A graph of the spatial variation of the power density along a
constant radius is called an amplitude power pattern.
The field and power patterns are normalized with respect to their
maximum value, yielding normalized field and power patterns.
The power pattern is usually plotted on a logarithmic scale or
Chapter 2
more commonly in decibels (dB).
3
Radiation Pattern
For an antenna, the
Field pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot
of the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a
function of the angular space.
Power pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a
plot of the square of the magnitude of the electric or
magnetic field as a function of the angular space.
Power pattern (in dB) represents the magnitude of the
electric or magnetic field, in decibels, as a function of the
angular space.
Chapter 2 4
Chapter 2 5
Antenna Radiation Pattern
Two-dimensional normalized field pattern (plotted in linear scale),
power pattern( plotted in linear scale), and power pattern (plotted on
a logarithmic dB scale ) are shown in figure 2.2
The plus (+) and minus (−) signs in the lobes indicate the relative
polarization of the amplitude between the various lobes, which
changes (alternates) as the nulls are crossed.
To find the points where the pattern achieves its half-power (−3 dB
points), relative to the maximum value of the pattern, you set the
value of the
Field pattern at 0.707 value of its maximum, as shown in Figure
2.2(a)
Power pattern (in a linear scale) at its 0.5 value of its
maximum, as shown in Figure 2.2(b)
Power pattern (in dB) at −3 dB value of its maximum, as shown
in Figure 2.2(c).
All three patterns yield the same angular separation between the two half-
power points, 38.64◦, on their respective patterns, referred to as HPBW
Chapter 2 6
Chapter 2 7
Radiation Pattern Lobes
A radiation lobe is a “portion of the radiation pattern
bounded by regions of relatively weak radiation intensity.”
A major lobe (also called main beam) is defined as “the
radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum
radiation.” In Figure 2.3 the major lobe is pointing in the θ =
0 direction.
A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe.
A side lobe is “a radiation lobe in any direction other than
the intended lobe.”
A back lobe is “a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of
approximately 180◦ with respect to the beam of an antenna.”
Chapter 2 8
Chapter 2 9
Radiation Pattern
Notes
Minor lobes usually represent radiation in undesired directions,
and they should be minimized.
Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes.
The level of minor lobes is usually expressed as a ratio of the
power density in the lobe in question to that of the major lobe.
This ratio is often termed the side lobe ratio or side lobe level.
Side lobe levels of −20 dB or smaller are usually not desirable
in most applications.
In most radar systems, low side lobe ratios are very important
to minimize false target indications through the side lobes.
Chapter 2 10
Radiation Pattern
A normalized three-dimensional far-field amplitude pattern,
plotted on a linear scale is given in Figure 2.4
For an amplitude pattern of an antenna, there would be, in
general, three electric-field components (Er,Eθ,Eφ) at each
observation point on the surface of a sphere of constant radius
r = rc, as shown in Figure 2.1. In the far field, the radial Er
component for all antennas is zero or vanishingly small
compared to either one, or both, of the other two components.
The magnitude of the field would be |E| = sqt (|Er |2 + |Eθ |2 + |
Eφ|2).
Chapter 2 11
Chapter 2 12
Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional
Patterns
An isotropic radiator is defined as “a hypothetical lossless
antenna having equal radiation in all directions.” It is taken as a
reference for expressing the directive properties of actual antennas.
A directional antenna is one “having the property of radiating or
receiving electromagnetic waves more effectively in some directions
than in others. This term is usually applied to an antenna whose
maximum directivity is significantly greater than that of a half-wave
dipole.”
Examples of antennas with directional radiation patterns are Shown
in Figures 2.5 and 2.6 (The pattern in Figure 2.6 is non directional in the
azimuth plane [f (φ), θ = π/2] and directional in the elevation plane [g(θ), φ
= constant] (called Omnidirectional pattern)
Omnidirectional pattern “having an essentially non directional
pattern in a given plane (in this case in azimuth) and a directional
pattern in any orthogonal plane (in this case in elevation)” ( special
type of a directional pattern)
Chapter 2 13
Chapter 2 14
Principal Patterns
For a linearly polarized antenna, performance is often described
in terms of its principal E- and H-plane patterns:
The E-plane is defined as “the plane containing the electric
field vector and the direction of maximum radiation,”
The H-plane as “the plane containing the magnetic-field
vector and the direction of maximum radiation.”
An illustration is shown in Figure 2.5. For this example, the x-z
plane (elevation plane;φ = 0) is the principal E-plane and the
x-y plane (azimuthal plane; θ = π/2) is the principal H-plane.
The omnidirectional pattern of Figure 2.6 has an infinite
number of principal E-planes (elevation planes; φ = φc) and on
principal H-plane (azimuthal plane; θ = 90◦).
Chapter 2 15
Chapter 2 16
Field Regions
The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into
three regions. These regions are so designated to identify the
field structure in each (regions as shown in Figure 2.7):
Reactive near-field: is defined as “that portion of the near-
field region immediately surrounding the antenna wherein the
reactive field predominates.”
For most antennas, the outer boundary of this region is
commonly taken to exist at a distance R < 0.62sqrtD3/λ
from the antenna surface, where λ is the wavelength and D
is the largest dimension of the antenna.
For a very short dipole, or equivalent radiator, the outer
boundary is commonly taken to exist at a distance λ/2π
from the antenna surface.
Chapter 2 17
Chapter 2 18
Field Regions
Radiating near-field (Fresnel)
Is defined as “that region of the field of an antenna between
the reactive near-field region and the far-field region wherein
radiation fields predominate and wherein the angular field
distribution is dependent upon the distance from the antenna.
If the antenna has a maximum dimension that is not large
compared to the wavelength, this region may not exist .
For an antenna focused at infinity, the radiating near-field
region is sometimes referred to as the Fresnel region on the
basis of analogy to optical terminology.
If the antenna has a maximum overall dimension which is very
small compared to the wavelength, this field region may not
exist.”
The inner boundary is taken to be the distance R ≥
0.62sqrt(D3/λ) and the outer boundary the distance R < 2D2/λ
where D is the largest dimension of the antenna (To be valid, D
Chapter 2 must also be large compared to the wavelength (D > λ)) 19
Field Regions
Far-field (Fraunhofer)
is defined as that region of the field of an antenna where the
angular field distribution is essentially independent of the
distance from the antenna.
If the antenna has a maximum overall dimension D, the far-
field region is commonly taken to exist at distances greater
than 2D2/λ from the antenna, λ being the wavelength.
For an antenna focused at infinity, the far-field region is
sometimes referred to as the Fraunhofer region on the basis of
analogy to optical terminology.”
In this region, the field components are essentially transverse
and the angular distribution is independent of the radial
distance where the measurements are made.
The inner boundary is taken to be the radial distance R =
2D2/λ and the outer one at infinity.
Chapter 2 20
Field Regions
The amplitude pattern of an antenna, as the observation
distance is varied from the reactive near field to the far field,
changes in shape because of variations of the fields, both
magnitude and phase.
A typical progression of the shape of an antenna, with the
largest dimension D, is shown in Figure 2.8.
It is apparent that in the reactive near field region the
pattern is more spread out and nearly uniform, with slight
variations.
As the observation is moved to the radiating near-field
region(Fresnel), the pattern begins to smooth and form
lobes.
In the far-field region (Fraunhofer), the pattern is well
formed, usually consisting of few minor lobes and one, or
more, major lobes.
Chapter 2 21
Chapter 2 22
Field Regions
The pattern variation as a function of radial distance
beyond the minimum 2D2/λ far-field distance:
Figure 2.9 include three patterns of a parabolic reflector
calculated at distances of R =2D2/λ, 4D2/λ, and infinity.
It is observed that the patterns are almost identical, except
for some differences in the pattern structure around the first
null and at a level below 25 dB.
Because infinite distances are not realizable in practice, the
most commonly used criterion for minimum distance of far-
field observations is 2D2/λ.
Chapter 2 23
Chapter 2 24
Radian and Steradian
The measure of a plane angle is a radian.
One radian is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at the
centre of a circle of radius r that is subtended by an arc whose
length is r. (A graphical illustration is shown in Figure 2.10(a))
Since the circumference of a circle of radius r is C = 2πr, there
are 2π rad (2πr/r) in a full circle.
The measure of a solid angle is a steradian.
One steradian is defined as the solid angle with its vertex at the
centre of a sphere of radius r that is subtended by a
spherical surface area equal to that of a square with each
side of length r.
A graphical illustration is shown in Figure 2.10(b). Since the area
of a sphere of radius r is A = 4πr2, there are 4π sr (4πr2/r2) in
a closed sphere.
Chapter 2 25
.
.
Chapter 2 26
Radian and Steradian
The infinitesimal area dA on the surface of a sphere of radius r,
shown in Figure 2.1, is given by
Therefore, the element of solid angle dΩ of a sphere can be
written as
Chapter 2 27
Chapter 2 28
RADIATION POWER DENSITY
Power and energy are associated with electromagnetic waves.
The quantity used to describe the power associated with an
electromagnetic wave is the instantaneous Poynting vector
defined as
2-3
Note that script letters are used to denote instantaneous fields and
quantities, while roman letters are used to represent their complex
counterparts.
Chapter 2 29
RADIATION POWER DENSITY
Since the Poynting vector is a power density, the total
power crossing a closed surface can be obtained by integrating
the normal component of the Poynting vector over the entire
surface:
2-4
Chapter 2 30
RADIATION POWER DENSITY
For applications of time-varying fields, it is often more desirable
to find the average power density which is obtained by
integrating the instantaneous Poynting vector over one period
and dividing by the period.
For time-harmonic variations of the form ejωt, we define the
complex fields which are related to their instantaneous
counterparts
Chapter 2 31
RADIATION POWER DENSITY
2-7
• The first term of (2-7) is not a function of time, and the time
variations of the second are twice the given frequency. The time
average Poynting vector (average power density) can be
written as
• The 1/2 factor appears in(2-7) and (2-8) because the E and H
fields represent peak values, and it should be omitted for RMS
values.
Chapter 2 32
RADIATION POWER DENSITY
The real part of (E × H∗)/2 represents the average (real) power
density, where, the imaginary part must represent the reactive
(stored) power density associated with the electromagnetic fields.
Radiation density: The power density associated with the
electromagnetic fields of an antenna in its far-field region is
predominately real.
The radiated power density of an Antenna: Wrad
Based upon the definition of (2-8), the average power
radiated by an antenna (radiated power) can be written as:
Chapter 2 33
RADIATION POWER DENSITY
Chapter 2 34
RADIATION POWER DENSITY
An isotropic radiator:
an ideal source that radiates equally in all directions.
Although it does not exist in practice, it provides a
convenient isotropic reference with which to compare other
antennas.
Because of its symmetric radiation, its Poynting vector will
not be a function of the spherical coordinate angles θ and φ.
In addition , it will have only a radial component.
Thus the total power radiated by it is given by
The power density is uniformly distributed over the surface of
a sphere of radius r.
2-4
Chapter 2 35
RADIATION INTENSITY
Radiation intensity
in a given direction is defined as “the power radiated from
an antenna per unit solid angle.”
The radiation intensity is a far-field parameter, and it can
be obtained by simply multiplying the radiation density by
the square of the distance.
In mathematical form it is expressed as
Chapter 2 36
RADIATION INTENSITY
Radiation intensity
The radiation intensity is also related to the far-zone electric
field of an antenna, referring to Figure 2.4, by
Chapter 2 37
RADIATION INTENSITY
The radiation intensity is related to the far-zone electric field of
an antenna, referring to Figure 2.4, by
The total power is obtained by integrating the radiation intensity, as
given by (2-12), over the entire solid angle of 4π. Thus
2-13
Chapter 2 38
RADIATION INTENSITY
Chapter 2 39
RADIATION INTENSITY
For an isotropic source U will be independent of the angles θ
and φ, as was the case for Wrad. Thus (2-13) can be written as
Or the radiation intensity of an isotropic source as
Chapter 2 40
BEAMWIDTH
The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular
separation between two identical points on opposite side of the
pattern maximum. Beamwidths types:
Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW ): which is defined by IEEE
as: “In a plane containing the direction of the maximum of a
beam, the angle between the two directions in which the
radiation intensity is one-half value of the beam.” (Figure 2.11:
demonstrated for the pattern of example 2.4).
First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW): is the angular separation
between the first nulls of the pattern.
In practice, the term beamwidth, with no other identification,
usually refers to HPBW.
Chapter 2 41
BEAMWIDTH
The beamwidth of an antenna is used as a trade-off between it
and the side lobe level; that is, as the beamwidth decreases
the side lobe increases and vice versa.
The beamwidth of the antenna is also used to describe the
resolution capabilities of the antenna to distinguish between
two adjacent radiating sources or radar targets.
Resolution criterion: the resolution capability of an antenna to
distinguish between two sources is equal to half the first-null
beamwidth (FNBW/2), which is usually used to approximate the
half power beamwidth (HPBW).
That is, two sources separated by angular distances equal or
greater than FNBW/2 ≈ HPBW of an antenna with a uniform
distribution can be resolved.
Chapter 2 42
BEAMWIDTH
Chapter 2 43
BEAMWIDTH
Chapter 2 BEE 3113ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS THEORY 44
BEAMWIDTH
Chapter 2 BEE 3113ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS THEORY 45
BEAMWIDTH
Chapter 2 BEE 3113ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS THEORY 46
DIRECTIVITY
Directivity of an antenna:
defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity
averaged over all directions. The average radiation
intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the
antenna divided by 4π. If the direction is not specified,
the direction of maximum radiation intensity is
implied.”
Stated more simply, the directivity of a non isotropic
source is equal to the ratio of its radiation intensity in
a given direction over that of an isotropic source
Chapter 2 47
DIRECTIVITY
In mathematical form,using (2-15), it can be written as
If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum
radiation intensity (maximum directivity) expressed as :
Chapter 2 48
DIRECTIVITY
Chapter 2 49
DIRECTIVITY
Chapter 2 BEE 3113ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS THEORY 50
DIRECTIVITY
Chapter 2 BEE 3113ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS THEORY 51
DIRECTIVITY
Chapter 2 BEE 3113ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS THEORY 52
DIRECTIVITY
Before proceeding with a more general
discussion of directivity, it may be properat
this time to consider another example,
compute its directivity, compare it with that of
the previous example, and comment on what
it actually represents.
This may give the reader a better
understanding and appreciation of the
directivity.
Chapter 2 53
DIRECTIVITY
Chapter 2 BEE 3113ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS THEORY 54
DIRECTIVITY
Chapter 2 BEE 3113ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS THEORY 55
DIRECTIVITY
At this time it will be proper to comment on the results of
Examples 2.5 and 2.6.To better understand the discussion, we
have plotted in Figure 2.12 the relative radiationintensities of
Example 2.5 (U = A0 sin θ) and Example 2.6 (U = A0 sin2 θ)
where A0 was set equal to unity. We see that both patterns are
omnidirectional but that of Example 2.6 has more directional
characteristics (is narrower) in the elevation plane.
Since the directivity is a “figure of merit” describing how well the
radiator directs energy in a certain direction, it should be
convincing from Figure 2.12 that the directivity of Example 2.6
should be higher than that of Example 2.5.
To demonstrate the significance of directivity, let us consider
another example; in particular let us examine the directivity of a
half-wavelength dipole (l = λ/2).
Chapter 2 56
DIRECTIVITY
The significance of directivity can be approximated by:
rer
Figure 2.12 Three-dimensional radiation intensity patterns. (SOURCE: P. Lorrainan d D. R.
Corson, Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, 2nd ed., W. H. Freeman and Co. Copyright 1970
Chapter 2 57
DIRECTIVITY
since it can be shown that
where θ is measured from the axis along the length of the dipole.
The values represented by (2-18) and those of an isotropic
source (D = 1) are plotted two- and threedimensionally in Figure
2.13(a,b).
For the three-dimensional graphical representation of Figure
2.13(b), at each observation point only the largest value of the
two directivities is plotted. It is apparent that when
sin−1(1/1.67)1/3 = 57.44◦ < θ < 122.56◦, the dipole radiator has
greater directivity (greater intensity concentration) in those
directions than that of an isotropic source .
Chapter 2 58
Directivity
Outside this range of angles, the isotropic radiator has higher
directivity (more intense radiation). The maximum directivity
of the dipole (relative to the isotropic radiator) occurs when θ
= π/2, and it is 1.67 (or 2.23 dB) more intense than that of the
isotropic radiator (with the same radiated power).
The three-dimensional pattern of Figure 2.13(b), and similar
ones, are included throughout the book to represent the three-
dimensional radiation characteristics of antennas.
These patterns are plotted using software developed in [2] and
[3], and can be used to visualize the three-dimensional
radiation pattern of the antenna. These three-dimensional
programs, along with the others, can be used effectively
toward the design and synthesis of antennas, especially arrays,
as demonstrated in [7] and [8].
Chapter 2 59
DIRECTIVITY
A MATLAB-based program, designated as 3-D Spherical, is
also included in the attached CD to produce similar plots.
The directivity of an isotropic source is unity since its power is
radiated equally well in all directions.
For all other sources, the maximum directivity will always be
greater than unity, and it is a relative “figure of merit” which
gives an indication of the directional properties of the antenna
as compared with those of an isotropic source.
In equation form, this is indicated in(2-16a). The directivity
can be smaller than unity; in fact it can be equal to zero. For
Examples 2.5 and 2.6, the directivity is equal to zero in the θ =
0 direction. The values of directivity will be equal to or greater
than zero and equal to or less than the maximum directivity (0
≤ D ≤ D0).
Chapter 2 60
Directivity
A more general expression for the directivity can be developed
to include sources with radiation patterns that may be
functions of both spherical coordinate angles θ and φ.
In the previous examples we considered intensities that were
represented by only one coordinate angle θ, in order not to
obscure the fundamental concepts by the mathematical details.
So it may now be proper, since the basic definitions have been
illustrated by simple examples, to formulate the more general
expressions. Let the radiation intensity of an antenna be of the
form
Chapter 2 61
DIRECTIVITY
where B0 is a constant, and E0 θ and E0 φ are the antenna’s far-
zone electric-field components.
The maximum value of (2-19) is given by
Chapter 2 62
Chapter 2 63
Chapter 2 64
Chapter 2 65
Chapter 2 66
