Waste Stabilization Ponds

Eng. Mohammed Badaza

Schematic Diagram of a Waste Stabilization Pond
• Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) are large, shallow basins in which raw sewage is
treated entirely by natural processes involving both algae and bacteria
• Sewage is treated in a series of earthen ponds.
• Initially after screening and de‐gritting it is fed to an anaerobic pond for initial
pretreatment;
• Depth of anaerobic pond is usually 3 to 3.5m;
• As a result the lower section of pond does not get oxygen and an anaerobic
condition is developed.
• BOD reduction takes place by anaerobic metabolism and gases like ammonia and
hydrogen sulphide are produced creating odor problems.
• After reduction of BOD by 40% it enters the facultative/aerobic pond, which is
normally 1 ‐ 1.5 m in depth.
• Lesser depth allows continuous oxygen diffusion from atmosphere; in addition
algae in the pond also produces oxygen.
• Though BOD at the outlet remains within the range, sometimes the
effluent has green color due to presence of algae.
• The algae growth can contribute to the deterioration of effluent
quality (higher total suspended solids) from time to time.
• Moreover, coliforms removal is also in 1‐2 log order.
• The operating cost of a waste stabilization pond is minimum, mostly
related to the cost of cleaning the pond once in two to three years.
• A waste stabilization pond requires a very large land area and it is
normally used for small capacity plant, especially where barren land is
available.
Types of Waste Stabilization Ponds and Their Specific Uses
• WSP systems comprise a single string of anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds in
series, or several such series in parallel.
• In essence, anaerobic and facultative ponds are designed for removal of Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD), and
• maturation ponds for pathogen removal, although some BOD removal also occurs in
maturation ponds and some pathogen removal in anaerobic and facultative ponds
(Mara, 1987).
• In most cases, only anaerobic and facultative ponds will be needed for BOD removal
when the effluent is to be used for restricted crop irrigation and fish pond fertilization, as
well as when weak sewage is to be treated prior to its discharge to surface waters.
• Maturation ponds are only required when the effluent is to be used for unrestricted
irrigation, thereby having to comply with the WHO guideline of >1000 faecal coliform
bacteria/100 ml.
• The WSP does not require mechanical mixing, needing only sunlight to supply most of its
oxygenation. Its performance may be measured in terms of its removal of BOD and
faecal coliform bacteria.
 Anaerobic ponds
• Anaerobic ponds are commonly 2 – 5 m deep and receive wastewater with
high organic loads (i.e., usually greater than 100 g BOD/m3.day, equivalent
to more than 3000 kg/ha.day for a depth of 3 m).
• They normally do not contain dissolved oxygen or algae.
• In anaerobic ponds, BOD removal is achieved by sedimentation of solids,
and subsequent anaerobic digestion in the resulting sludge.
• The process of anaerobic digestion is more intense at temperatures above
15o C.
• The anaerobic bacteria are usually sensitive to pH <6.2. Thus, acidic
wastewater must be neutralized prior to its treatment in anaerobic ponds.
• A properly-designed anaerobic pond will achieve about a 40% removal of
BOD at 10o C, and more than 60% at 20o C. A shorter retention time of 1.0 -
1.5 days is commonly used.
 Facultative ponds

• Facultative ponds (1-2 m deep) are of two types:

• Primary facultative ponds that receive raw wastewater, and
• secondary facultative ponds that receive particle-free wastewater (usually from anaerobic ponds,
septic tanks, primary facultative ponds, and shallow sewerage systems).
• The process of oxidation of organic matter by aerobic bacteria is usually dominant in primary
facultative ponds or secondary facultative ponds
• The processes in anaerobic and secondary facultative ponds occur simultaneously in primary
facultative ponds, as shown in Figure 2.1.
• It is estimated that about 30% of the influent BOD leaves the primary facultative pond in the form
of methane (Marais 1970).
• A high proportion of the BOD that does not leave the pond as methane ends up in algae. This
process requires more time, more land area, and possibly 2 -3 weeks water retention time, rather
than 2 -3 days in the anaerobic pond.
• In the secondary facultative pond (and the upper layers of primary facultative ponds), sewage
BOD is converted into “Algal BOD,” and has implications for effluent quality requirements. About
70 – 90% of the BOD of the final effluent from a series of well-designed WSPs is related to the
algae they contain.
Pathways of BOD removal in primary facultative ponds
• In secondary facultative ponds that receive particle-free sewage
(anaerobic effluent), the remaining non-settleable BOD is oxidised by
heterotrophic bacteria (Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium,
Archromobacter and Alcaligenes spp).
• The oxygen required for oxidation of BOD is obtained from
photosynthetic activity of the micro-algae that grow naturally and
profusely in facultative ponds
 Maturation Ponds

• The maturation ponds, usually 1-1.5 m deep, receive the effluent from the facultative ponds.
• Their primary function is to remove excreted pathogens.
• Although maturation ponds achieve only a small degree of BOD removal, their contribution to nutrient
removal also can be significant.
• Maturation ponds usually show less vertical biological and physicochemical stratification, and are well-
oxygenated throughout the day.
• The algal population in maturation ponds is much more diverse than that of the facultative ponds, with
non-motile genera tending to be more common.
• The algal diversity generally increases from pond to pond along the series (Mara, 1989).
• Although faecal bacteria are partially removed in the facultative ponds, the size and numbers of the
maturation ponds especially determine the numbers of faecal bacteria in the final effluent.
• There is some removal of solids-associated bacteria in anaerobic ponds, principally by sedimentation.
• The principal mechanisms for faecal bacterial removal in facultative and maturation ponds are now
known to be:
• (a) Time and temperature;
• (b) High pH (> 9); and
• (c) High light intensity, combined with high dissolved oxygen concentration
• Time and temperature are the two principal parameters used in
designing maturation ponds.
• Faecal bacterial die-off in ponds increases with both time and
temperature (Feachem et al., 1983).
• High pH values (above 9) occur in ponds, due to rapid photosynthesis by
pond algae, which consumes CO2 faster than it can be replaced by
bacterial respiration.
• As a result, carbonate and bicarbonate ions dissociate, as follows:

• 2 HCO3- → CO32– + H2O + CO2 (2.9)

• CO32- + H2O2 → 2 OH- + CO2 (2.10)
Design of Waste Stabilization Ponds - Design parameters

• There are four important design parameters for WSP, including temperature,
net evaporation, flow and BOD.
• The climate also is important inasmuch as the processes responsible for
BOD5 and fecal bacterial removal are temperature-dependent.
• Further, algal photosynthesis depends on solar insulation, itself a function of
latitude and cloud cover. Cloud cover periods are seldom a problem because
the solar insulation during the day in tropical and sub-tropical regions
generally greatly exceeds the saturation light intensity of the algae in the
ponds.
• The design temperature usually is the mean air temperature in the coolest
month (or quarter).
• The pond water is usually 2-3o C warmer than the air temperature in the cool
season, with the reverse also being true.
Estimation of water flows and BOD concentrations

• The mean water flows should be carefully estimated, since they have direct effects on the size of the
ponds and the construction costs.
• A suitable design is 85% of the in-house water consumption.
• The BOD may be measured if wastewater exists, based on 24-hour flow weighted data.
• Alternatively, the BOD may be estimated from the following equation:

• Where Li is wastewater BOD (mg/l), B is BOD contribution (g/capita.day), and Q is wastewater flow (L/
capita.day).
• Values of B vary between 30 to 70 g/capita.day, with rich communities producing more BOD than poor
communities (Campos and von Sperling, 1996).
• In medium-sized towns, a value of 50 g/capita.day is more suitable (Mara and Pearson, 1987). A typical
design figure for an urban area in a developing country would be 40 - 50 grams BOD5/capita.day
• Although it is dangerous to generalize, in view of the wide variations
which can be expected with differing social customs, religion, etc., a
BOD5 per capita contribution of 40 grams/day, with a wastewater
contribution of about 100 liters/capita.day is probably a reasonable
initial estimate where there is a household water supply; however,
flows also may be considerably less.

• The usual range of faecal coliform in domestic wastewater is 107 – 108

faecal coliform/100 ml, with a suitable deign value being 5 x 107/100
ml.
Design of Waste Stabilization Ponds

• Design of anaerobic ponds

• The anaerobic ponds are designed on the basis of volumetric loading (λv,
g/m3/d), which is given by:

• λv = Lt Q/Va (2.12)

• Where Li is influent BOD (mg/l), Q is flow rate (m3/day), and Va is anaerobic

pond volume (m3). Meiring et al., 1998 recommended that the loading
should be between 100 – 400 g/m3.day, in order to maintain anaerobic
conditions
• Once the organic loading is selected, the volume of the pond is then
determined with the use of Equation 2.12. The hydraulic retention time
is then calculated, using Equation 2.13, as follows:

• tr = Va/Q

• A retention time less than one day should not be used for anaerobic
ponds; if it occurs, however, a retention time of one day should be
used, and the volume of the pond should be recalculated. Table 2.7
illustrates the permissible loadings to the anaerobic ponds.
Design of facultative ponds
• Kinetic models for the design of facultative ponds
• Facultative ponds can be designed on the basis of kinetic or empirical models.
• The rate at which the organic matter is oxidized by bacteria is a fundamental
parameter in the rational design of biological wastewater treatment systems.
• It has been found that BOD removal often approximates first-order kinetics;
that is, the rate of BOD removal (rate of oxidation of organic matter) at any
time is proportional to the quantity of BOD (organic matter) present in the
system at that time.
• This is expressed mathematically in Equation 2.14 as:

• dL/dt = - K1L 2.14

• Where L is the quantity of BOD remaining (= organic matter to be
oxidized) at time “t”, and k1 is first-order rate constant for BOD
removal (day-1).
• The simple approach to the rational design of facultative ponds
assumes they are completely mixed reactors in which BOD5 removal
follows first-order kinetics (Marais and Shaw, 1961). The rational
equation for the design is illustrated in Equation 2.15:
• The mid-depth area of the pond is calculated using Equation 2.17:

• A = Qt/D 2.17

• Where Q is the volumetric flow rate (m3/day), D is the pond depth

(m), and A is the mid-depth area (m2). Substituting “t” from Equation
2.16 into Equation 2.17, the mid-depth area of the pond will be:
• 
• The value for k1 at 20o C was found to be 0.3 day-1 (Mara, 1986), while the value of
kT is calculated using Equation 2.12. Note that the rate (k1) is a gross measure of
bacterial activity and, consistent with almost all parameters that describe a
biological growth process, its value is strongly temperature-dependent.
• Its variation with temperature is usually described by an Arrhenius equation
(Equation 2.19):

• Where θ is the Arrhenius constant, whose value is usually between 1.01 - 1.09.
However, the typical values of θ for the design of waste stabilization ponds range
between 1.05 - 1.09. Note that the temperature should be taken as the mean
temperature of the coldest month.
 Empirical models for the design of facultative ponds

• Although several methods are available for designing facultative

ponds, Mara (1976) recommended that facultative ponds should be
designed on the basis of surface loading (with the reasons stated in
the sections above, λs, kg/ha.day), which is given by:
• Where Li is the concentration of influent sewage (mg/l), and Af is the facultative pond
area (m2).
• The selection of the permissible design value of λs is usually based on the temperature.
The temperature dependence indicates that the design values of λs increases with
temperature.
• The earliest relationship between λs and temperature was given by McGarry and Pescode
(1970), and later by Mara (1976).
• The Mara (1976) equation is as shown in Equation 2.21:

• λs = 20 T – 120 2.21

• However, an appropriate λs and temperature relationship is presented by Mara (1987) as:

• λs = 350 {1.107 – 0.002T}(T-20) 2.22

• Once the surface loading has been selected, the area of the
facultative pond can be calculated from Equation 2.20, and its
retention time (θf, day) is calculated from Equation 2.23:

• Where D is the pond depth (usually 1.5m), and Qm is the mean flow
(m3/day).
• The mean flow is the mean of the influent and effluent flows (Qi and
Qe), the latter being the former less net evaporation and seepage.
Thus Equation 2.23 becomes:
• A minimum retention time value of 5 days should be adopted for
temperatures below 20o C, and 4 days for temperature above 20o C.
This is to minimize hydraulic short-circuiting, and to give algae
sufficient time to multiply (i.e., to prevent algal washout).
Design of maturation ponds for faecal coliform removal

• The method of Marais (1974) is generally used to design a pond series for faecal coliform removal.
• This assumes that faecal coliform removal can be reasonably well represented by a first-order kinetic
model in a completely-mixed reactor.
• The resulting equation for a single pond is given by:

• Where Ne and Ni are the number of faecal coliform/100 ml in the effluent and influent,
kT is the first-order rate constant for faecal coliform removal (d -1), and θ is a retention
time (day).
• For a series of anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds, Equation 2.27 becomes:
• Where the sub-scripts, a, f and m, refer to the anaerobic, facultative and
maturation ponds, and n is the number of maturation ponds. Equation 2.28
assumes that all the maturation ponds are equally-sized, which is the most efficient
configuration (Marais, 1974), but which may not be topographically possible (in
which case, the last term of the denominator in Equation 2.28 is replaced by:
[(1+kTθm1) (1+kTθm2).…….(1+kTθmn)]).
• The value of kT is highly temperature-dependent. Marais (1974) found that:
• 
• kT = 2.6 (1.19)T-20 (2.29)
where Be = bacterial concentration in no. FC/100 ml of effluent.
Bi = bacterial concentration in no. FC/100 ml of influent.
KB(T) = first order FC removal rate constant at T OC in per day
t* = detention time.
The total fecal coliform removal in a series can be found from:
 Table 1: ANTICIPATED BOD5 and FC CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE REDUCTIONS FOR VARIOUS POND SYSTEMS AT 12, 20 AND 25 0C

  Cum % of BOD5 Reduction Cum % of Faecal Coliform Reduction

  0
12 C
0
20 C
0
25 C
0
12 C
0
20 C
0
25 C
Anaerobic Pond 45 62 70 60 86 93
Anaerobic+ Facultative 80 88 90 96 99.3 99.2
Anaerobic+ Fac. + Maturation 86 92 94 99 99.975 99.95
Anaerobic + Fac. + 3 94 95 95+ 99.95 99.9996 99.9999
Maturation
Facultative Pond 75 80 84 91 97 98
Facultative + Maturation 86 90 93 98.2 99.94 99.98
Facultative + 3 Maturation 93 95 95+ 99.90 99.998 99.9993
Aerated Lagoon 70 80 82 72 93 96
Aerated + Maturation (10 86 92 93 95 99.30 99.9
days) 93 95 95+ 99.80 99.996 99.999
Aerated + 3 Maturation
Assumptions

• System treating normal domestic sewage

• Anaerobic pond detention time of 2 days
• Facultative pond detention time of 7 to 15 days depending on
ambient temperature
• Maturation pond detention time of 5days, accept first maturation
following aerated lagoons – 10 days
• Aerated lagoon detention time of 4 days
• First order removal of FC
Table 2: EFFECT ON FC CONTENT OF MATURATION PONDS OF 5 – DAY DETENTION
TIME AT 12, 20 AND 25 0C

  0
12 C
0
20 C
0
25 C

Inflow to first maturation pond 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000

FC concentration per 100ml

Pond 1 Effluent 235,294 60,500 31,250

Pond 2 Effluent 55,363 3,770 976

Pond 3 Effluent 13,026 222 30

EXAMPLE 1

• Assumed to be a new development (e.g., sites and services project)

due to be fully implemented and occupied within 5 years of first raw
sewage arriving at plant. It is intended that the effluent will eventually
be used for channel irrigation of vegetables.
•  Design assumptions and requirements
• Population (ultimate) 10,000
• Per capita wastewater contribution 80 lcd
• Per capita BOD5 contribution 40 gcd
• Total infiltration to sewers estimated at 100 m3 /day
• Influent bacterial concentration assumed 5 x 107 FC/l00 ml
• Mean minimum monthly temperature 210C
• Effluent standard required for unrestricted irrigation <25 mg/l BOD5
• <100 FC/100 ml
Design Calculations

• Sewage flow 10,000 x 80 1 = 800 m3/day

• plus infiltration = 100 m3/day
• Total flow rate = 900 m3/day

• Total organic load 10,000 x 40 g = 400 kg

• Influent BOD 5 concentration = 400/900 = 445 mg/l
(a) Anaerobic ponds

• At 210C anaerobic ponds designed using volumetric loading (Xv) of 0.25 kg BOD5/m3/d
(0.1kg for cold areas of 120C and 0.4kg for warm temperatures (27-320C)
• Volume of ponds = 400 / 0.25 = 1,600 m3
• Check detention time (t*) = 1,600/900 =1.78 days
• Since 2-day detention time pond will only decrease loading to 0.22 kg BOD5/m3/d
• use 2 day t*.
• Volume required = 1,800 m3
• For flexibility of operation use 2 anaerobic units each 900 m3 volume plus one reserve
pond 900 m3 volume.
• Assuming operational depth of 4 m mid depth
• area of each pond - 225 m2 (say 10m x 22.5 m)
• Total (mid depth) area of anaerobic ponds is 675 m2
(b) Facultative Ponds

• Facultative pond designed according to equation 1 with T - 210C.

• s = 20 x 21 - 60 = 360 kg BOD5/ha/day
• Assuming BOD5 removal of anaerobic ponds conservatively at 60% (Table 1)
• Influent BOD5 to facultative pond - 0.4 x 445 = 178 mg/l
• From equation 2 facultative pond mid-depth area can be calculated from;
• A = (10 x 178 x 900)/360 = 4,450 m2
• Assuming depth of 1.75 m, volume = 7,780 m3
• Facultative pond can remain a single unit since cleaning should not be required
during its lifetime.
• Detention time of facultative pond = 7780/900=8.6 days
• Probable BOD5 removal in facultative pond is 80% giving cumulative removal
of 88%.
(c) Maturation Ponds

• Maturation ponds designed to achieve an effluent FC concentration

100 FC/100 ml.
• Using equations 4 and 5 and assuming three 5-day maturation ponds
in series.
• Thus a series of three 5-day maturation ponds will satisfy the bacterial
effluent standard.
• Check for BOD5: probable cumulative percentage removal = 95%
(Table 1)
• Effluent BOD5 = 0.05 x 445 = 22.3 mg/l
• Thus effluent should also satisfy BOD5 effluent standard.
• Maturation pond volumes each 4,500 m3
• Assume depth = 1.5 m
• Then mid-depth area of each maturation pond = 3,000 m2
Merits
• Simple to construct and operate and maintain
• Low operating and maintenance cost
• Self sufficiency, ecological balance, and economic viability is greater
• Possible recovery of the complete resources
• Good ability to withstand hydraulic and organic load fluctuations
Demerits
• Requires extremely large areas
• Large evaporation loss of water
• If liner is breached, groundwater is impacted
• Effluent quality may vary with seasons
• No energy production
• Comparatively inferior quality of effluent
• Less nutrient removal
• High chlorine dosing for disinfection
• Odor and vector nuisance
• Loss of valuable greenhouse gases to the atmosphere