Coral Reefs—
health and hazards
Dr. Maia McGuire
University of
Florida/Sea Grant
Photo by Mike
White, FKNMS
What is a Coral?
Animal, vegetable or mineral?
It’s an animal which
may live with a
plant and makes a
mineral-based
skeleton.
Illustration by Geoff Kelley in
JEN Veron (2000) Corals of
the World, AIMS, Townsville
Coral structure
Individual animals are called polyps
Several polyps make up a colony
Corals are closely related to jellyfish
and sea anemones—they all contain
stinging cells called nematocysts.
Coral reefs
Reef-building corals require clear,
warm water
Shallow areas
Most reefs are between 26° N and S
latitude
There are corals found off Alaska and
other cold waters, but they grow very
slowly and do not form reefs
Symbiosis
E.C. Peters
Many hard and soft corals (and some
jellyfish and sea anemones) contain a
symbiotic single-celled brown
dinoflagellate (algae) called
zooxanthellae
This is a mutualistic symbiosis
Bleaching occurs when corals lose
their zooxanthellae
Coral Bleaching
Response to stress
Temperature
UV
Oxygen
Darkness
Sedimentation J. Hoggesteger
Who initiates bleaching?
Can corals recover?
Patterns of bleaching
Seasonal—usually in summer
Geographically, often
begins in the Caribbean
and spreads northwards
Physically, there are often
bleached patches on the
sides of large coral heads
(especially Montastraeas)
ENSO
Zooxanthellae “clades”
Three groups of zooxanthellae have
been identified
Each group has different environmental
tolerances and is found in different
locations on the coral head
Photo by Scott R. Santos,
SUNY Buffalo
Where do zooxanthellae go?
“Free” zooxanthellae are rarely
found in plankton samples
May become benthic, sessile
May go into dormant stage
Presumably free zooxanthellae do
exist
Coral reproduction
Asexual reproduction
(usually in branching
corals; often storm-
related)
Sexual reproduction
Hermaphroditic or gonochoristic
Self- or cross-fertilization
Internal or external fertilization
Brooders or broadcast spawners
Richard Fitzpatrick
Bette Willis in J.E.N. Veron
(1987) Corals of Australia
and the Indo-Pacific.
Hawaii University Press
Brooders
Eggs develop into larvae
internally and may be
brooded for several weeks
Larvae are released, often
at night, often in response
to the lunar cycle
Brooders may have up to
12 reproductive cycles per
R. Hays Cummins
year
Coral larvae (planulae)
Swim using tiny hairs (cilia)
May already contain
zooxanthellae Bob Richmond
Swim for days to weeks before
they settle and
metamorphose
Settlement may be in response
NOAA
to chemical cues and may be
gregarious
Status of coral reefs
Globally, coral reefs are generally in
decline
Increasing human population
(especially in coastal areas) increases
the impacts on coral reefs
Human impacts on coral
reefs
Overfishing
Sedimentation
Nutrient enrichment
Chemicals/oil
Physical damage
(anchors, fishing,
groundings)
Overfishing
Changes trophic structure
Many large predators are no
longer present NOAA
Grazing fish species are
being collected as food fish
May allow algal overgrowth
of corals
Nutrient enrichment
Nutrients are elements needed for
growth
If there are not enough of certain
types of nutrients, they are said to be
limiting nutrients
Most common limiting nutrients in the
marine environment are N and P
Nitrogen Phosphorus
Available in water as Available in water as
nitrate, nitrite, dissolved inorganic
ammonium or organic phosphate or organic
nitrogen (e.g. urea, phosphorus (dissolved
plant or animal tissues) or particulate)
How does nutrient
enrichment occur?
Septic tanks/sewage
Leaks
Pumping into the ocean
Fertilizer runoff
Agricultural
Homeowners
Golf courses
Effects of increasing
nutrients
Cause increase in
plant (algae)
growth
Macroalgae
Microalgae
(phytoplankton)
HAB’s/Red tides
Blooms of “harmful algae”
Pfisteria
Cause human health
problems
Mote Marine Lab
Cause fish kills
May be killing dolphins,
manatees
FMRI
Effects of increased nutrients
on corals
Cause decrease in coral
growth
Direct chemical
interference with skeleton
formation
Result of overshading by
algae
Jennifer M. Smith
The nutrient-calcification
mystery
If zooxanthellae help corals calcify,
then why do enriched corals, which
contain more zooxanthellae, calcify
less?
Zooxanthellae are N-limited
“Excess” photosynthate is given to coral
If zooxanthellae grow, there is less
photosynthate to give to the corals
But….
There are more zooxanthellae per cm² of coral,
so the animal receives the same amount of
carbon…
=
Is the type of carbon compound different in
enriched and control corals?
Chemicals/oil
Non point-source pollution
– 51% of the oil entering the oceans is
from runoff
– 5% is from big spills
– 19% is from routine maintenance
– 2% is from offshore drilling
– 13% is from burning fuels (e.g. car exhaust)
– 10% is from natural seeps
Physical damage
Thomas Heeger,
Fishing techniques in the South Philippines
Pacific include dynamiting or
poisoning reefs to collect aquarium
fish for export
Boat anchors and boat/ship
groundings cause damage that can
take thousands of years to re-grow
Natural impacts
Marine debris
Suffocation risk
Balloons/bags
Entanglement/entrapment
Fishing line/ropes
Old nets
Abandoned traps/pots
What can you do?
Reduce, reuse, recycle
Motor oil
Fishing line
Read and follow instructions
on chemicals, including
fertilizers
Fix automotive leaks
What does the future hold?
The answer is up to you…
1988
USGS
1998
USGS
