Introduction to

Physiology:
The Cell and
General Physiology
• The goal of physiology is to explain the
physical and chemical factors that are
responsible for the origin, development,
and progression of life.
• In human physiology, we attempt to
explain the specific characteristics and
mechanisms of the human body that make
it a living being.
 Cells as the Living Units of the Body

• Cell
– basic living unit of the body
– Each type of cell is specially adapted to
perform one or a few particular functions.
– 100 trillion cells
– Almost all cells also have the ability to
reproduce additional cells of their own kind.
• Cells are capable of living, growing, and
performing their special functions as long
as the proper concentrations of oxygen,
glucose, different ions, amino acids, fatty
substances, and other constituents are
available in this internal environment.
 Extracellular Fluid—The “Internal Environment”

• 60 per cent of the adult human body is

fluid
Intracellular fluid - fluid inside the cells
Extracellular fluid- one third in the spaces
outside the cells
 Extracellular Fluid—The “Internal Environment”

• in constant motion throughout the body

• transported rapidly in the circulating blood
and then mixed between the blood and the
tissue fluids by diffusion through the
capillary walls.
• also called the internal environment of the
body, or the milieu intérieur,
 Differences Between Extracellular and
Intracellular Fluids.

• Extracellular fluid • Intracellular fluid

– contains large amounts of – contains large amounts of

sodium, chloride, and
bicarbonate ions plus potassium, magnesium,
nutrients for the cells, such and phosphate ions.
as oxygen, glucose, fatty
acids, and amino acids.

– also contains carbon

dioxide
 “Homeostatic” Mechanisms of
the Major Functional Systems

• homeostasis is used by physiologists to

mean maintenance of nearly constant
conditions in the internal environment.

• e.g. the kidneys maintain constant ion

concentrations, and the gastrointestinal system
provides nutrients.
Extracellular Fluid Transport and Mixing System—
The Blood Circulatory System

• Extracellular fluid is transported through all

parts of the body in two stages.
1. movement of blood through the body in
the blood vessels
2. movement of fluid between the blood
capillaries and the intercellular spaces
between the tissue cells.
 Origin of Nutrients in the Extracellular Fluid

• Respiratory System.
• Gastrointestinal Tract.
• Liver and Other Organs That Perform
Primarily Metabolic Functions.
• Musculoskeletal System.
 Removal of Metabolic End Products

• Removal of Carbon Dioxide by the Lungs.

• Kidneys.
 Regulation of Body Functions

• Nervous System.
• Hormonal System of Regulation.
 Reproduction

• help maintain homeostasis by generating

new beings to take the place of those that
are dying.
 Characteristics of Control Systems

• Negative Feedback Nature of Most

Control Systems
– if some factor becomes excessive or deficient,
a control system initiates negative feedback,
which consists of a series of changes that
return the factor toward a certain mean value,
thus maintaining homeostasis.
• Positive Feedback Can Sometimes Cause
Vicious Cycles and Death

– positive feedback does not lead to stability but

to instability and often death.
– the initiating stimulus causes more of the
same.
 Positive Feedback Can Sometimes Be
Useful
• Blood clotting
• Childbirth
• For the generation of nerve signals.