Photon:

A packet or bundle of energy is called a photon.

hc
Energy of a photon is E = hν =
λ
where h is the Planck’s constant, ν is the frequency of the
radiation or photon, c is the speed of light (e.m. wave) and λ is
the wavelength.
Properties of photons:
i) A photon travels at a speed of light c in vacuum. (i.e. 3 x 10 -8 m/s)
ii) It has zero rest mass. i.e. the photon can not exist at rest.
iii) The kinetic mass of a photon is, E h
m= =
c2 cλ
E h
iv) The momentum of a photon is, p= =
c λ
v) Photons travel in a straight line.
vi) Energy of a photon depends upon frequency of the photon; so the
energy of the photon does not change when photon travels from one
medium to another.
vii) Wavelength of the photon changes in different media; so, velocity of
a photon is different in different media.
viii) Photons are electrically neutral.
ix) Photons may show diffraction under given conditions.
x) Photons are not deviated by magnetic and electric fields.

Photoelectric Effect:
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from mainly metal surfaces
exposed to light energy (X – rays, γ – rays, UV rays, Visible light and even
Infra Red rays) of suitable frequency is known as photoelectric effect.
The electrons emitted by this effect are called photoelectrons.
The current constituted by photoelectrons is known as photoelectric current.
Note: Non metals also show photoelectric effect. Liquids and gases also
show this effect but to limited extent.
UV Visible light Visible light
Photoelectrons Photoelectrons
No photoelectrons

Metals Metals other than Alkali Metals Alkali Metals

Experimental Set-up to study Photoelectric Effect:
UV light

C A

μA
+ + C – Metallic cathode
A – Metallic Anode
● ●K V
W – Quartz Window
- Photoelectron
Glass transmits only visible and infra-red lights but not UV light.
Quartz transmits UV light.

When light of suitable frequency falls on the metallic cathode, photoelectrons

are emitted. These photoelectrons are attracted towards the +ve anode and
hence photoelectric current is constituted.
1) Effect of Intensity of Incident Light on Photoelectric Current:
For a fixed frequency, the photoelectric current I
increases linearly with increase in intensity of μA
incident light.
2) Effect of Potential on Photoelectric Current:
For a fixed frequency and intensity of 0 Intensity (L)
incident light, the photoelectric
current increases with increase in Saturation Current
I
+ve potential applied to the anode.
μA L2
When all the photoelectrons reach
the plate A, current becomes L1
maximum and is known as saturation
current. L2 > L 1
When the potential is decreased,
the current decreases but does not +
VS 0 Potential of A (V)
become zero at zero potential.
This shows that even in the absence of accelerating potential, a few
photoelectrons manage to reach the plate on their own due to their K.E.

When –ve potential is applied to the plate A w.r.t. C, photoelectric current

becomes zero at a particular value of –ve potential called stopping potential
or cut-offof
Intensity potential.
incident light does not affect the stopping potential.
3) Effect of Frequency of Incident Light on Photoelectric Current:
For a fixed intensity of incident light, the photoelectric current does not
depend on the frequency of the incident light. Because, the photoelectric
current simply depends on the number of photoelectrons emitted and in turn
on the number of photons incident and not on the energy of photons.

4) Effect of Frequency of Incident Light on Stopping Potential:

For a fixed intensity of incident light,
the photoelectric current increases
and is saturated with increase in +ve Saturation Current
I
potential applied to the anode.
μA
However, the saturation current is ν2 > ν1
same for different frequencies of the ν2
incident lights.
ν1
When potential is decreased and
+
taken below zero, photoelectric VS2 VS1 0 Potential of A (V)
current decreases to zero but at
different stopping potentials for
different frequencies.

Higher the frequency, higher the stopping potential. i.e. VS α ν

5) Threshold Frequency:
The graph between stopping potential and frequency
VS
does not pass through the origin. It shows that there
is a minimum value of frequency called threshold (V)
frequency below which photoelectric emission is not
possible however high the intensity of incident light
may be. It depends on the nature of the metal 0 ν0 ν
emitting photoelectrons.
Laws of Photoelectric Emission:
i) For a given substance, there is a minimum value of frequency of incident
light called threshold frequency below which no photoelectric emission is
possible, howsoever, the intensity of incident light may be.
ii) The number of photoelectrons emitted per second (i.e. photoelectric
current) is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light provided
the frequency is above the threshold frequency.
iii) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional
to the frequency provided the frequency is above the threshold frequency.
iv) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the
intensity of the incident light.
v) The process of photoelectric emission is instantaneous. i.e. as soon as the
photon of suitable frequency falls on the substance, it emits
photoelectrons.
vi) The photoelectric emission is one-to-one. i.e. for every photon of suitable
frequency one electron is emitted.
 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation:
When a photon of energy hν falls on a metal surface, the energy of the
photon is absorbed by the electron and is used in two ways:

i) A part of energy is used to overcome the surface barrier and come out of
the metal surface. This part of the energy is called ‘work function’
(Ф = hν0).

ii) The remaining part of the energy is used in giving a velocity ‘v’ to the
emitted photoelectron. This is equal to the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons ( ½ mv2max ) where ‘m’ is mass of the photoelectron.

According to law of conservation of energy,

hν = Ф + ½ mv2max
Photon
hν ½ mv2max
= hν0 + ½ mv2max
Photoelectron
½ mv2max = h ( ν - ν0 )
Ф = hν0
Metal
Verification of Laws of Photoelectric Emission based on Einstein’s
Photoelectric Equation:
½ mv2max = h ( ν - ν0 )

i) If ν < ν0, then ½ mv2max is negative, which is not possible. Therefore, for
photoelectric emission to take place ν > ν0.

ii) Since one photon emits one electron, so the number photoelectrons
emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.

iii) It is clear that ½ mv2max α ν as h and ν0 are constant. This shows that K.E. of
the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident
light.

iv) Photoelectric emission is due to collision between a photon and an

electron. As such there can not be any significant time lag between the
incidence of photon and emission of photoelectron. i.e. the process is
instantaneous. It is found that delay is only 10-8 seconds.
Application of Photoelectric Effect:
1. Automatic fire alarm
2. Automatic burglar alarm
3. Scanners in Television transmission
4. Reproduction of sound in cinema film
5. In paper industry to measure the thickness of paper
6. To locate flaws or holes in the finished goods
7. In astronomy
8. To determine opacity of solids and liquids
9. Automatic switching of street lights
10. To control the temperature of furnace
11. Photometry
12. Beauty meter – To measure the fair complexion of skin
13. Light meters used in cinema industry to check the light
14. Photoelectric sorting
15. Photo counting
16. Meteorology
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter:
Wave theory of electromagnetic radiations explained the phenomenon of
interference, diffraction and polarization.

On the other hand, quantum theory of e.m. radiations successfully

explained the photoelectric effect, Compton effect, black body radiations,
X- ray spectra, etc.

Thus, radiations have dual nature. i.e. wave and particle nature.

Louis de Broglie suggested that the particles like electrons, protons,

neutrons, etc have also dual nature. i.e. they also can have particle as
well as wave nature.

Note: In no experiment, matter exists both as a particle and as a wave

simultaneously. It is either the one or the other aspect. i.e. The two
aspects are complementary to each other.

His suggestion was based on:

i) The nature loves symmetry.
ii) The universe is made of particles and radiations and both entities must
be symmetrical.
de Broglie wave:
According to de Broglie, a moving
material particle can be associated with a
wave. i.e. a wave can guide the motion of
the particle.
The waves associated with the moving
material particles are known as λ
de Broglie waves or matter waves.

Expression for de Broglie wave:

hc
According to quantum theory, the energy of the photon is E = hν =
λ
According to Einstein’s theory, the energy of the photon is E = mc2
h h where p = mc
So, λ= or λ=
mc p is momentum of a photon

If instead of a photon, we have a material particle of mass m moving with

velocity v, then the equation becomes
h
λ=
mv
which is the expression for de Broglie wavelength.
Conclusion: h
λ=
mv

i) de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the velocity of the

particle. If the particle moves faster, then the wavelength will be
smaller and vice versa.
ii) If the particle is at rest, then the de Broglie wavelength is infinite.
Such a wave can not be visualized.
iii) de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass of the
particle. The wavelength associated with a heavier particle is smaller
than that with a lighter particle.
iv) de Broglie wavelength is independent of the charge of the particle.

Matter waves, like electromagnetic waves, can travel in vacuum and hence
they are not mechanical waves.
Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves because they are not
produced by accelerated charges.
Matter waves are probability waves, amplitude of which gives the
probability of existence of the particle at the point.
Davisson and Germer Experiment:
A beam of electrons emitted by the
electron gun is made to fall on
Nickel crystal cut along cubical axis

●
at a particular angle. V Electron Gun
The scattered beam of electrons is F
received by the detector which can C
be rotated at any angle. A
The energy of the incident beam of or
ect
electrons can be varied by changing
θ Ф Det
the applied voltage to the electron
gun. θ

Intensity of scattered beam of

electrons is found to be maximum Crystal Lattice
when angle of scattering is 50° and Nickel Crystal
the accelerating potential is 54 V.

θ + 50° + θ = 180° i.e. θ = 65° Electron diffraction is similar

For Ni crystal, lattice spacing to X-ray diffraction.
d = 0.91 Å Bragg’s equation 2dsinθ = nλ gives
For first principal maximum, n = 1 λ = 1.65 Å
 Incident Beam

Incident Beam
Intensity of scattered beam at 44 V Intensity of scattered beam at 48 V

e am
b
ed
Incident Beam

Incident Beam
r
atte
Sc

Ф = 50°

Intensity of scattered beam at 54 V Intensity of scattered beam at 64 V

According to de Broglie’s
de Broglie wavelength of
hypothesis, h 12.27 Å
λ= or λ= moving electron at V = 54
2meV V Volt is 1.67 Å which is in
close agreement with 1.65 Å.
Intensity vs √ Anode Potential:

Diffraction
pattern after
100 electrons
Intensity

Diffraction
pattern after
0 5 10 15 20 25 √ V 3000 electrons
(√ 54) V

Diffraction
pattern after
70000 electrons

End of Dual Nature of Matter and Radiations