Cytology
Cytology
Cytology
What is a cell?
A cell is a small membrane-bound structure membranethat contains all the requirements for life. It is the smallest living structure. The basic unit of life composed of organelles and inclusion bodies
1665 Robert Hooke discovered the cell Robert Brown nucleus and cyclosis 1838 Matthias Schleiden proposed that all plants are made up of cells. 1839 Theodor Schwann proposed that all animals are made up of cells. 1858 Rudolf Virchow proposed his theory of biogenesis: All cells come from pre-existing cells pre(life from life). This discredits the theory of spontaneous generation. Jan Evangelista Purkinje the first one to use the term protoplasm to describe the living part of the cell
enough to control what enters and leaves the cell 2. The volume of the cell must be small enough so that reactants can find each other
MICROSCOPY
light microscope
light as source of illumination glass lenses limited resolution (loses resolving power at magnifications above 2000X) beam of electrons directed by magnets onto a viewing screen or photographic plate greater magnification than light microscope greater resolving power than light microscope
electron microscope
CELL SIZE
most cells are microscopic 5-100 microns length of nerve cell 1 meter (m) largest single cell ostrich egg
Cell Organization
I. The Plasma Membrane
1.
A. Phospholipid bilayer 1. HYDROPHILIC END 2. HYDROPHOBIC END B. Protein layer 1. extrinsic protein 2. intrinsic protein
2. Plasma Membrane Functions Keeps the cell intact and being selectively permeable, it regulates what enters or leaves the cell
a. Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
b. Osmosis is the movement of water across a membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration
Some carrier molecules require no energy (facilitated transport) Other transport carriers require energy (active transport)
Endocytosis occurs when the plasma membrane forms a vesicle around a particle outside the cell and brings the particle into the cell Exocytosis occurs when a vesicle inside the cell fuses with the plasma membrane and dumps its contents outside the cell
Types of Organelles
1. Membranous Organelles - membrane-bounded structures of the membranecell - Nucleus, G.A., mitochondria, ER, lysosomes, peroxisome, proteasomes 2. Non-membranous Organelles Non- not bounded by membrane ex. cytoskeleton, centrioles
a. The Nucleus
The nucleus is the control center for the cel DNA in the nucleus directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm Nuclear structures: b.1 Nucleoli - the nucleus contains one or more where ribosomal RNA is synthesized b.2 The nuclear envelope- a double membrane that envelopesurrounds the DNA and has pores that connect it with the cytoplasm b.3 Chromatins
B. Ribosomes (Microbodies)
A mix of ribosomal RNA and protein that forms a structure of two subunits They are the site of protein synthesis Has small ribosomal units and large ribosomal units
Types of ribosomes
Attached ribosomes - located in the ER - for CHON synthesis 2. Free ribosomes - located in the cytoplasm - for cellular uses
D. Lysosomes
Vesicles formed by the Golgi Apparatus that contain hydrolytic enzymes Digest food particles brought into the cell by endocytosis, and digest worn out and unwanted materials within the cell With hydrolytic enzymes
Lysosomal activity
AUTOPHAGY digestion of damaged organelles by the lysosomes of the cells
E. Mitochondria
Small double membrane bound organelles Convert the energy stored in glucose into ATP molecules by a process known as aerobic respiration CRISTAE area where there is greater ATP production
F. PEROXISOMES
Membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase For detoxification of toxins such as alcoho,formaldehyde Disarm dangerous free radicals (highly reactive chemicals w/ unpaied e- which ecan scramble CHON & nucleic acid structures Ex. H2O2- H2O + O
G. PROTEASOME
Organelles responsible for recycling of cellular materials With enzyme called proteases Bounded by membranes deal primarily with endogenous proteins; that is, proteins that were synthesized within the cell such as: transcription factors cyclins (which must be destroyed to prepare for the next step in the cell cycle) cycle) proteins encoded by viruses and other intracellular parasites proteins that are folded incorrectly because
G. The cytoskeleton
1. A network of filamentous protein structures 2. Provides an internal framework for the cell 3. Centrioles are structures that occur in pairs in the cell that organize the microtubules within the cell
Also, give rise to basal bodies that direct the formation of cilia and flagella TYPES: 1. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS 2. MICROFILAMENTS 3. MICROTUBULES
TYPES OF CYTOSKELETONS
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS * strong,stable,rope-like strong,stable,rope* form desmosomes and provide internal guy wires to resist pulling forces on the cell 1. MICROFILAMENTS * involved in motility and producing changes in the cell shape. 1. MICROTUBULES * tube-like structures which determine the overall shape of tubethe cell and the distribution of the organelles * important in cell division
Hairlike projections of the cells Responsible for locomotion in some cells; also, movement of invading organisms out of the body Flagella are relatively large in size and occur in small numbers Cilia are short and occur in large numbers
Cell Metabolism
Chemical reactions in cells are organized into metabolic pathways Every reaction in the pathway has its own enzyme
A. Enzymes
1.
2. Enzymes are specific to one reaction 3. Enzymes are affected by temperature and pH Inactivating an enzyme is called denaturing
C. Cellular Respiration
A three step series of reactions that breaks down glucose to produce CO2, water, and ATP Step 1: Glycolysis
Takes place in the cytoplasm Glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate
D. Fermentation
Breakdown of pyruvate in the absence of oxygen Produces very few ATP Produces lactic acid Fermentation occurs in muscles when they are overused to the extent that the blood cannot supply oxygen fast enough Lactic acid can be toxic to cells but is usually converted back to pyruvate when excess oxygen is available
Lactic acid causes muscle fatigue and sore muscles
THE END