Datacommunication Basics

• Data Communications: the movement of computer information from

one point to another by means of electrical or optical transmission
systems (called networks).
• Telecommunications: broader term that includes the transmission of
voice and video, as well as data, and may imply longer distances.
• Although once considered separate phenomenon, telecom & datacom are
in the process of “converging” into a single “broadband”
communications technology.

1
Figure 1-1. Components of a Network 2
 Network Definition
 Set of technologies that connects computers
 Allows communication and collaboration between
users

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 The Uses of a Network
• Simultaneous access to data
– Data files are shared
• Access can be limited
– Shared files stored on a server
– Software can be shared
• Site licenses
• Network versions
• Application servers

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 The Uses of a Network
 Shared peripheral device
 Printers and faxes are common shares
 Reduces the cost per user
 Devices can be connected to the network
 Print servers control network printing
 Manage the print queue

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 Sharing Data

File server contains documents

used by other computers.

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 The Uses of a Network
• Personal communication
– Email
• Instantaneous communication
– Conferencing
• Tele conferencing
• Videoconferencing
• Audio-conferencing
• Data-conferencing
– Voice over IP
• Phone communication over network wires

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 The Uses of a Network
• Easier data backup
– Backup copies data to removable media
– Server data backed up in one step
 Centralized administration and support
 From just a single location, the network administrator can perform
administrative tasks on any computer on the network, remote
troubleshooting

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 Disadvantage of a computer network
• Robustness. The connected systems on a network entirely
depend on the main server. ...
• Independence. Since networks are based on the centralized
server, most of the decisions are made themselves. ...
• Malware Attack. ...
• Implementation. ...
• Security. ...
• Maintenance. ...

9A-9
 Common Network Types
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Contains printers, servers and computers
 Systems are close to each other
 Contained in one office or building
 Organizations often have several LANS
 Example: network in your class

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 Common Network Types
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
 Two or more LANs connected
 Over a large geographic area
 Typically use public or leased lines
 Phone lines
 Satellite
 The Internet is a WAN

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 Hybrid Network Types
 Campus Area Networks (CAN)
 A LAN in one large geographic area
 Resources related to the same organization
 Each department shares the LAN

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 Hybrid Network Types
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Large network that connects different organizations
 Shares regional resources
 A network provider sells time
 Is a larger network that usually spans several buildings in
the same city or town.

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 Hybrid Network Types
• Personal Area Network (PAN)
– Very small scale network
– Range is less than 2 meters
– Cell phones, PDAs, MP3 players

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 Cont.…
• Terms to be familiar
• Servers—Computers that provide shared resources to network users.
• Clients—Computers that access shared network resources provided by
a server.
• Media—The wires that make the physical connections.
• Shared data—Files provided to clients by servers across the network.
• Shared printers and other peripherals—Additional resources provided
by servers.
• Resources—Any service or device, such as files, printers, or other items,
made available for use by members of the network

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 Types of networks based on configuration (Node Relationship)

1.Server based network

– Node is any network device
– Servers control what the node accesses
– Users gain access by logging in
– Server is the most important computer

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 2.Client/Server network
 Nodes and servers share data roles
 Nodes are called clients
 Servers are used to control access
 Database software
 Access to data controlled by server
 Server is the most important computer

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 Advantages of server based network

 Centralized resources
 Easier to backup files
 Easier to find files
 Efficient
 Security
 One machine can secure entire network
 One central login
 Scalability

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 Disadvantage of client server

 If the server goes down, it takes part or the whole

network with it
 It is more expensive to install
 Needs to be maintained by staff with high IT skills

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 3.Peer to peer networks (P2PN)
 All nodes are equal
 Nodes access resources on other nodes
 Each node controls its own resources
 Most modern OS allow P2PN
 Distributing computing is a form

9A-20
 Cont.…p2p network
Where a Peer-to-Peer Network Is Appropriate
 Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments
where:
 There are 10 users or fewer.
 Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no
specialized servers exist.
 Security is not an issue.
 The organization and the network will experience only limited
growth within the foreseeable future.

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 Cont.…p2p network

 Easy to install and configure

 The cost of installation and operation is less
 A full time network administrator is not required.
Disadvantages of peer to peer network
 Shared resources can be accessed by everyone
 Backup has to be performed on each computer separately
 No centralized security

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 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• Network topology, refers to the arrangement or
physical layout of computers, cables, and other
components on the network.
• Topology
– Logical layout of wires and equipment
– Choice affects
• Network performance
• Network size
• Network collision detection
– Several different types
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 Network Topologies
• Packets
– Pieces of data transmitted over a network
• Packets are created by sending node
• Data is reassembled by receiving node
– Packet header
• Sending and receiving address
– Packet payload
• Number and size of data
• Actual data
– Packet error control

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 1.bus topology
• The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus"
because the computers are connected in a straight
line. This is the simplest and most common method of
networking computers.

9A-25
 CONT…BUS TOPOLOGY
• only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network,
the number of computers attached to the bus will affect
network performance.
• The more computers there are on a bus, the more
computers will be waiting to put data on the bus and,
consequently, the slower the network will be.

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 CONT…BUS TOPOLOGY
 To understand how computers communicate on a bus,
you need to be familiar with three concepts:
Sending the signal
Signal bounce

Terminator

9A-27
 CONT …BUS

A)Sending the Signal:

• Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent
to all the computers on the network. Only the computer
whose address matches the address encoded in the
original signal accepts the information. All other
computers reject the data. Only one computer at a time
can send messages.
9A-28
 CONT…BUS TOPOLOGY
• Computers on a bus either transmit data to other
computers on the network or listen for data from other
computers on the network.
• They are not responsible for moving data from one
computer to the next. Consequently, if one computer
fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.

9A-29
 CONT…BUS

B)Signal Bounce:
• Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network,
it travels from one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is
allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back and
forth along the cable and prevent other computers from
sending signals. Therefore, the signal must be stopped after it has
had a chance to reach the proper destination address.

9A-30
 CONT…BUS
C)Terminator :
• To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator
is placed at each end of the cable to absorb free signals.
• Any open cable ends not plugged into something must be terminated
to prevent signal bounce.
• In either case, one or both ends of the cable will not have a
terminator, the signal will bounce, and all network activity will stop

9A-31
 CONT …BUS Topology
• Bus topology
– Also called linear bus
– One wire connects all nodes
– Terminator ends the wires
– Advantages
• Easy to setup
• Small amount of wire
– Disadvantages
– The more computers there are on the bus, the greater the backup of
computers waiting to put data on the bus, and consequently, the slower
the network.
• Slow
• Easy to crash
9A-32
 CONT…STAR TOPOLOGY
• cable segments from each computer are connected to
a centralized component called a hub or switch.
Signals are transmitted from the sending computer
through the hub to all computers on the network

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 CONT…STAR TOPOLOGY

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 2.Star topology
– All nodes connect to a hub
• Packets sent to hub
• Hub sends packet to destination
– Advantages
• Easy to setup
• One cable can not crash network
– Disadvantages
• One hub crashing downs entire network
• Uses lots of cable
– Most common topology

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 3.Ring topology
– Nodes connected in a circle
– Tokens used to transmit data
• Nodes must wait for token to send
– Advantages
• Time to send data is known
• No data collisions
– Disadvantages
• Slow
• Lots of cable

9A-36
 CONT…RING TOPOLOGY
• A ring network is a network topology in which each node
connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a single
continuous pathway for signals through each node – a ring.
• Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way
handling every packet.
• The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass
through each computer, which can act as a repeater to boost

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the signal and send it on to the next computer
 CONT…RING
• Due to the Uni-directional Ring, a data packet (token)
must have to pass through all the nodes.
• If one workstation shuts down, it affects whole
network or if a node goes down entire network goes
down.
• It is slower in performance as compared to the bus

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topology.
 CONT….RING

9A-39
 CONT..RING
Advantages of Ring topology:
 In this data flows in one direction which reduces the chance of
packet collisions
 no need of server to control the connectivity among the nodes
in the topology
 It is cheap to install and expand.
 Easy to manage.

9A-40
 CONT…RING
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
 Due to the Uni-directional Ring, a data packet (token) must have to pass through all
the nodes.
 If one workstation shuts down, it affects whole network or if a node goes down entire
network goes down
 Addition and removal of any node during a network is difficult and may cause issue
in network activity.
 Total dependence in on one cable.

 Difficult to troubleshoot the ring.

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 4.MESH TOPOLOGY

• A mesh topology is a network setup where each computer

and network device is interconnected with one another.

• This topology setup allows for most transmissions to be

distributed even if one of the connections goes down.

• there are dedicated links between each pair of Network

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Devices
 CONT …MESH

9A-43
 CONT…Mesh topology
Advantages of Mesh Topology :
 Failure during a single device won’t break the network.

 There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point

links for every computer.
 provides multiple paths to succeed in the destination and tons of
redundancy.
 It provides high privacy and security.

 Data transmission is more consistent because failure doesn’t

9A-44 disrupt its processes.
 CONT…MESH
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology :
 t’s costly as compared to the opposite network
topologies i.e. star, bus, point to point topology.
 Installation is extremely difficult in the mesh.
 Complex process
 Maintenance needs are challenging with a mesh.
 Power requirement is higher as all the nodes will
need to remain active all the time and share the load.

9A-45
 Hybrid Topology
A)Star Bus:
 a combination of the bus and star topologies. In a
star-bus topology, several star topology networks
are linked together with linear bus trunks.
 the most general computer network topologies
implemented in office and home.

9A-46
 CONT..STAR BUS

9A-47
 CONT…STAR BUS
• If one computer goes down, it will not affect the rest
of the network.
• The other computers can continue to communicate.

• If a hub goes down, all computers on that hub are

unable to communicate. If a hub is linked to other
hubs, those connections will be broken as well.

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 B)STAR-RING TOPOLOGY

• In the Star-Ring topology, the computers are connected to a

central component as in a star network. These components,

however, are wired to form a ring network.

• Like the star-bus topology, if a single computer fails, it will

not affect the rest of the network.

9A-49
 CONT…STAR-RING

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 LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
• A logical topology is how devices appear connected to
the user.
• A physical topology is how they are actually
interconnected with wires and cables. ... However, its
physical topology is a star, in which every node on the
network connects to a central hub.

9A-51
 CONT…LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL
• Logical Topology is the arrangement of network devices and
nodes to form a logical or physical structure. There are two
types of topologies that are logical and physical. The logical
topology deals with network protocols that are used to
control the data flow across the network.
• defines how the systems communicate across the physical
topologies.

9A-52
 CONT…LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL
• Physical topology refers to the interconnected structure
of a local area network (LAN).
• The method employed to connect the physical
devices on the network with the cables, and the type
of cabling used, all constitute the physical topology.

9A-53
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• Network topology, refers to the arrangement or
physical layout of computers, cables, and other
components on the network.
• Topology
– Logical layout of wires and equipment
– Choice affects
• Network performance
• Network size
• Network collision detection
– Several different types
9A-54
 Network Topologies
• Packets
– Pieces of data transmitted over a network
• Packets are created by sending node
• Data is reassembled by receiving node
– Packet header
• Sending and receiving address
– Packet payload
• Number and size of data
• Actual data
– Packet error control

9A-55
 1.bus topology
• The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus"
because the computers are connected in a straight
line. This is the simplest and most common method of
networking computers.

9A-56
 CONT…BUS TOPOLOGY
• only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network,
the number of computers attached to the bus will affect
network performance.
• The more computers there are on a bus, the more
computers will be waiting to put data on the bus and,
consequently, the slower the network will be.

9A-57
 CONT…BUS TOPOLOGY
 To understand how computers communicate on a bus,
you need to be familiar with three concepts:
Sending the signal
Signal bounce

Terminator

9A-58
 CONT …BUS

A)Sending the Signal:

• Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent
to all the computers on the network. Only the computer
whose address matches the address encoded in the
original signal accepts the information. All other
computers reject the data. Only one computer at a time
can send messages.
9A-59
 CONT…BUS TOPOLOGY
• Computers on a bus either transmit data to other
computers on the network or listen for data from other
computers on the network.
• They are not responsible for moving data from one
computer to the next. Consequently, if one computer
fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.

9A-60
 CONT…BUS

B)Signal Bounce:
• Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network,
it travels from one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is
allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back and
forth along the cable and prevent other computers from
sending signals. Therefore, the signal must be stopped after it has
had a chance to reach the proper destination address.

9A-61
 CONT…BUS
C)Terminator :
• To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator
is placed at each end of the cable to absorb free signals.
• Any open cable ends not plugged into something must be terminated
to prevent signal bounce.
• In either case, one or both ends of the cable will not have a
terminator, the signal will bounce, and all network activity will stop

9A-62
 CONT …BUS Topology
• Bus topology
– Also called linear bus
– One wire connects all nodes
– Terminator ends the wires
– Advantages
• Easy to setup
• Small amount of wire
– Disadvantages
– The more computers there are on the bus, the greater the backup of
computers waiting to put data on the bus, and consequently, the slower
the network.
• Slow
• Easy to crash
9A-63
 CONT…STAR TOPOLOGY
• cable segments from each computer are connected to
a centralized component called a hub or switch.
Signals are transmitted from the sending computer
through the hub to all computers on the network

9A-64
 CONT…STAR TOPOLOGY

9A-65
 2.Star topology
– All nodes connect to a hub
• Packets sent to hub
• Hub sends packet to destination
– Advantages
• Easy to setup
• One cable can not crash network
– Disadvantages
• One hub crashing downs entire network
• Uses lots of cable
– Most common topology

9A-66
 3.Ring topology
– Nodes connected in a circle
– Tokens used to transmit data
• Nodes must wait for token to send
– Advantages
• Time to send data is known
• No data collisions
– Disadvantages
• Slow
• Lots of cable

9A-67
 CONT…RING TOPOLOGY
• A ring network is a network topology in which each node
connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a single
continuous pathway for signals through each node – a ring.
• Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way
handling every packet.
• The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass
through each computer, which can act as a repeater to boost

9A-68
the signal and send it on to the next computer
 CONT…RING
• Due to the Uni-directional Ring, a data packet (token)
must have to pass through all the nodes.
• If one workstation shuts down, it affects whole
network or if a node goes down entire network goes
down.
• It is slower in performance as compared to the bus

9A-69
topology.
 CONT….RING

9A-70
 CONT..RING
Advantages of Ring topology:
 In this data flows in one direction which reduces the chance of
packet collisions
 no need of server to control the connectivity among the nodes
in the topology
 It is cheap to install and expand.
 Easy to manage.

9A-71
 CONT…RING
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
 Due to the Uni-directional Ring, a data packet (token) must have to pass through all
the nodes.
 If one workstation shuts down, it affects whole network or if a node goes down entire
network goes down
 Addition and removal of any node during a network is difficult and may cause issue
in network activity.
 Total dependence in on one cable.

 Difficult to troubleshoot the ring.

9A-72
 4.MESH TOPOLOGY

• A mesh topology is a network setup where each computer

and network device is interconnected with one another.

• This topology setup allows for most transmissions to be

distributed even if one of the connections goes down.

• there are dedicated links between each pair of Network

9A-73
Devices
 CONT …MESH

9A-74
 CONT…Mesh topology
Advantages of Mesh Topology :
 Failure during a single device won’t break the network.

 There is no traffic problem as there is a dedicated point to point

links for every computer.
 provides multiple paths to succeed in the destination and tons of
redundancy.
 It provides high privacy and security.

 Data transmission is more consistent because failure doesn’t

9A-75 disrupt its processes.
 CONT…MESH
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology :
 t’s costly as compared to the opposite network
topologies i.e. star, bus, point to point topology.
 Installation is extremely difficult in the mesh.
 Complex process
 Maintenance needs are challenging with a mesh.
 Power requirement is higher as all the nodes will
need to remain active all the time and share the load.

9A-76
 Hybrid Topology
A)Star Bus:
 a combination of the bus and star topologies. In a
star-bus topology, several star topology networks
are linked together with linear bus trunks.
 the most general computer network topologies
implemented in office and home.

9A-77
 CONT..STAR BUS

9A-78
 CONT…STAR BUS
• If one computer goes down, it will not affect the rest
of the network.
• The other computers can continue to communicate.

• If a hub goes down, all computers on that hub are

unable to communicate. If a hub is linked to other
hubs, those connections will be broken as well.

9A-79
 B)STAR-RING TOPOLOGY

• In the Star-Ring topology, the computers are connected to a

central component as in a star network. These components,

however, are wired to form a ring network.

• Like the star-bus topology, if a single computer fails, it will

not affect the rest of the network.

9A-80
 CONT…STAR-RING

9A-81
 LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
• A logical topology is how devices appear connected to
the user.
• A physical topology is how they are actually
interconnected with wires and cables. ... However, its
physical topology is a star, in which every node on the
network connects to a central hub.

9A-82
 CONT…LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL
• Logical Topology is the arrangement of network devices and
nodes to form a logical or physical structure. There are two
types of topologies that are logical and physical. The logical
topology deals with network protocols that are used to
control the data flow across the network.
• defines how the systems communicate across the physical
topologies.

9A-83
 CONT…LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL
• Physical topology refers to the interconnected structure
of a local area network (LAN).
• The method employed to connect the physical
devices on the network with the cables, and the type
of cabling used, all constitute the physical topology.

9A-84
 CHAPTER 3
Network Hardware and transmission Media
• Links that connect nodes
• Choice impacts
– Speed
– Security
– Size

9A-85
 Wire Based Media
1)Twisted-pair cabling
– Most common LAN cable
– Called Cat5 or 100BaseT
– Four pairs of copper cable
twisted
– May be shielded from
interference
– Speeds range from
1 Mbps to 1,000 Mbps

9A-86
 Cont.…twisted pair cabling
• there are two types of twisted-pair cable; UTP and STP.

• In the UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair) cable, all pairs are

wrapped in a single plastic sheath.

• In the STP (Shielded twisted-pair) cable, each pair is wrapped

with an additional metal shield, then all pairs are wrapped in a
single outer plastic sheath.

9A-87
 Similarities and differences between STP and UTP cables

 Both STP and UTP can transmit data at 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, and
10Gbps.
 Since the STP cable contains more materials, it is more expensive than
the UTP cable.
 Both cables use the same RJ-45 (registered jack) modular connectors.
 The STP provides more noise and EMI resistance than the UTP cable.
 The maximum segment length for both cables is 100 meters or 328 feet.
 Both cables can accommodate a maximum of 1024 nodes in each
segment.

9A-88
 Cont.…twisted pair cabling

9A-89
 Figure 7.4 UTP and STP cables

7.90
 Figure 7.5 UTP connector

7.91
 Cont.…twisted pair cabling
• The TIA/EIA specifies standards for the twisted-pair cable.
The first standards were released in 1991, known as
TIA/EIA 568. Since then, these standards have been
continually revised to cover the latest technologies and
developments of the transmission media.

• The TIA/EIA 568 divides the twisted-pair cable into

several categories. The following table lists the most
common and popular categories of twisted-pair cable.

9A-92
 Cont.…twisted pair cabling
Category/name of the cable Maximum Description
supported
speed

Cat 1 1Mbps This cable contains only two pairs (4 wires). This cable was used in the telephone
network for voice transmission.

Cat 2 4Mbps This cable and all further cables have a minimum of 8 wires (4 pairs). This cable was
used in the token-ring network.

Cat 3 10Mbps This is the first Ethernet cable that was used in LAN networks.

Cat 4 20Mbps This cable was used in advanced Token-ring networks.

9A-93
 Cont.…twisted pair cabling
Category/name of the cable Maximum supported speed Description

Cat 5 100Mbps This cable was used in advanced (fast) LAN networks.

Cat 5e 1000Mbps This cable/category is the minimum requirement for all

modern LAN networks.

Cat 6 10Gbps This cable uses a plastic core to prevent cross-talk

between twisted-pair. It also uses a fire-resistant plastic
sheath.

Cat 6a 10Gbps This cable reduces attenuation and cross-talk. This cable
also potentially removes the length limit. This is the
recommended cable for all modern Ethernet LAN
networks.

Cat 7 10Gbps This cable sets a base for further development. This cable
uses multiple twisted-pair and shields each pair by its
plastic sheath.
9A-94
 Cont.…twisted pair cabling
• NB:Cat 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are outdated and not used in any
modern LAN network.
• Cat 7 is still a new technology and not commonly used.

• Cat 5e, 6, 6a are the commonly used twisted-pair

cables.

9A-95
 2)Coaxial cable
– Similar to cable TV wire
– One wire runs through cable
– Shielded from interference
– Speeds up to 10 Mbps
– Nearly obsolete
– 2 types: thicket and thinet coax cable
– Connector:BNC

9A-96
 Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable

7.97
 CONT…Coaxial cable
• The central copper wire helps to transfer data. The wire mesh helps
to protect data from the external electromagnetic interference.
• The external plastic sheath helps to protect the cable from physical
damage.
• Coaxial cable has more resistant to interference and attenuation
than twisted-pair.
• Coaxial cable is a common type of cable for TV system.
• There are two types of coaxial cables
Cont.…Coaxial cable
 A.Thinnet (10 base 2)
• This type of coaxial cable has thinner central copper wire.
And it can transmit data with 10mega bits per second for
185 meters. And it is rounded to 200 meters. That is why it is
called 10 base 2.10 refers 10mb/s and 2 for 200 meters.
• It is flexible, easy to install, and relatively inexpensive than
Thick net.
 B.Thick net (10 base 5)
• This has thicker central copper wire. And it has the
ability to transfer data up to 500 meters with the speed
of 10 mega bits per second. This cable is somewhat
difficult to bend .
• Thick cable is more expensive than thin cable, but
will carry a signal farther.
Advantage and disadvantage of coaxial
cable
Advantages:
• It is less susceptible to interference than twisted-pair cable.
• Transmit data for greater distances than is possible with less
expensive cabling.
• Support higher bandwidth than twisted pair cable.
Coaxial Cable Disadvantages
• Due to its high metallic content, coaxial cable is usually more
expensive than Twisted pair.
• It is affected by EMI although better than Twisted pair
 Categories of coaxial cables

7.103
 BNC connectors

7.104
 3)Fiber-optic cable
– Data is transmitted with light pulses
– Glass strand instead of cable
– Immune to interference
– Very secure
– Hard to work with
– Speeds up to
100 Gbps

9A-105
 CONT…Fiber-optic cable

• Consists of a core, cladding/facing/ layer, buffer/safegard,

and jacket.
• The core is made from thin strands of glass or plastic that
can carry data over a long distance. The core is wrapped in
the cladding; the cladding is wrapped in the buffer, and the
buffer is wrapped in the jacket.

9A-106
 CONT…Fiber-optic cable

NB:
 Core: carries the data signals in the form of light.
 Cladding: reflects light back to the core.
 Buffer: protects the light from leaking.
 The jacket: protects the cable from physical damage.
 Fiber optic cable is completely immune to EMI and RFI. This
cable can transmit data over a long distance at the highest
speed. It can transmit data up to 40 kilometers at the speed
of 100Gbps.

9A-107
 CONT….Optical fiber

7.108
 PROPAGATION Modes OF FO

7.109
 Fiber construction

7.110
 Fiber-optic cable connectors

7.111
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical

conductor.

This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.

Topics discussed in this section:

 Radio Waves
 Microwaves
 Infrared
 Satellite
 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

7.113
 Wireless Media
• Data transmitted through the air

• LANs use radio waves

• WANs use microwave signals
• MW: high frequency radio signal (operating at thousands of MHz) in
which the signal is not broadcast but is transmitted in a straight line
through the air
• Easy to setup
• Difficult to secure

9A-114
 satellite

• A satellite is basically a self-contained

communications system with the ability to receive
signals from Earth and to retransmit those signals
back with the use of a transponder—an integrated
receiver and transmitter of radio signals.

9A-115
 Con’t
• The main components of a satellite consist of the
communications system, which includes the antennas
and transponders that receive and retransmit
signals, the power system, which includes the solar
panels that provide power, and the propulsion/force
system, which includes the rockets that propel the
satellite.

9A-116
Satellite Point to Point Link
Satellite Broadcast Link
 Infrared
• Modulate non coherent infrared light
• Line of sight (or reflection)
• Blocked by walls
• e.g. TV remote control, IRD(integrated receiver
/decoder) port(intended for re-broadcasting)
• IRD-the interface between a receiving satellite dish
or Telco networks and a broadcasting facility
video/audio infrastructure.
Networking Components and
Devices

120
 To complete our examination of networking on a physical level, this
chapter looks at the network devices used to create networks.
 Hubs
 Switches
 Bridges
 Repeaters
 Routers
 Gateways
 CSU/DSU
 Wireless access points (WAPs)
 Modems
 Network interface cards (NICs)
 Transceivers
 Firewalls

121
1)Hubs
 are simple network devices, and their simplicity is reflected in their low
cost.
 Small hubs with four or five ports (often referred to as workgroup
hubs) provide everything needed to create a small network.
 Most hubs are referred to as either active or passive.
 Passive hub is just a connector which connects wire coming from
other devices.
 Active hub is multi-point repeater with capability of regeneration of
signals.
 Active hub can process and monitor information while passive hub
cannot do this.

122
123
 CON’T …HUB
 The basic function of a hub is to take data from one of the
connected devices and forward it to all the other ports on
the hub.
 The method of sending data to all systems regardless of the
intended recipient is referred to as broadcasting.
 This method of operation is inefficient because, in most
cases, the data is intended for only one of the connected
devices.
 Due to the inefficiencies of the hub system and the
constantly increasing demand for more bandwidth, hubs
are slowly but surely being replaced with switches.

124
125
 CON’T…SWITCH
2)Switches
 On the surface, a switch looks much like a hub.
 Despite their similar appearance, switches are far more
efficient than hubs and are far more desirable for today's
network environments.
 As with a hub, computers connect to a switch via a length of
twisted-pair cable.
 Multiple switches are often interconnected to create larger
networks.

126
 Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch
forwards data only to the port on which the destination system is
connected.
 It looks at the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices
connected to it to determine the correct port.
 A MAC address is a unique number that is stamped into every NIC.
By forwarding data only to the system to which the data is addressed,
the switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network link
dramatically.
127
128
 Collisions occur on the network when two devices attempt
to transmit at the same time.
 Such collisions cause the performance of the network to
degrade.
 By channeling data only to the connections that should
receive it, switches reduce the number of collisions that occur
on the network.
 Switches can also further improve performance over the
performance of hubs by using a mechanism called full-duplex
. On a standard network connection, the communication
between the system and the hub is said to be half-duplex.

129
 In a half-duplex connection, data can be either sent or received
on the wire but not at the same time.
 Because switches manage the data flow on the connection, a
switch can operate in full-duplex mode.
 It can send and receive data on the connection at the same time.
 In a full-duplex connection, the maximum data
throughput/AMOUNT is double that for a half-duplex connection
for example, 10Mbps becomes 20Mbps, and 100Mbps becomes
200Mbps.

130
Switching Methods
1.Cut-through :
 the switch begins to forward the packet as soon as it is
received.
 No error checking is performed on the packet,
 so the packet is moved through quickly.
 the switch can propagate errors
 30 times faster than store-and-forward switching

131
Con’t…cut-through switching
 In cut-through switching, the switch copies into its memory only
the destination MAC address (first 6 bytes of the frame) of the
frame before making a switching decision.
 A switch operating in cut-through switching mode reduces delay
because the switch starts to forward the Ethernet frame as
soon as it reads the destination MAC address and determines the
outgoing switch port.
 Problem related with cut-through switching is that the switch may
forward bad frames.

132
2.Store and Forward switching

 In Store and Forward switching, Switch copies each complete

Ethernet frame into the switch memory and computes a Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC) for errors.
 If a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) error is found, the Ethernet
frame is dropped and if there is no Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC) error, the switch forwards the Ethernet frame to the
destination device.

133
Con’t…store and Forward switching

 Store and Forward switching can cause delay in switching

since Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is calculated for each
Ethernet frame
 the switch waits to receive the entire packet before beginning
to forward it.
 also performs basic error checking

134
CONT…SWITCH
3.Fragment-free :
 is a variation on cut-through switching that partially
addresses this problem by assuring that collision
fragments are not forwarded.
 Fragment free will hold the frame until the first 64 bytes
are read from the source to detect a collision before
forwarding.
 On some managed switches, you can select the switching
method you want to use.

135
Con’t…. Fragment-free
 Fragment-free (runtless switching) switching is an advanced
form of cut-through switching.
 The switches operating in cut-through switching read only
up to the destination MAC address field in the Ethernet
frame before making a switching decision.
 The switches operating in fragment-free switching read at
least 64 bytes of the Ethernet frame before switching it to
avoid forwarding Ethernet runt frames (Ethernet frames
smaller than 64 bytes).

136
 Working with Hubs and Switches
 Hubs and switches have two types of ports: medium dependent
interface (MDI) or uplink port and medium dependent interface
crossed (MDI-X).
 Uplink port allows you to connect two hubs and switches to create
larger networks.

137
CONT…MDI&MDIX PORTS
 it is a port on a network hub or switch used to connect to other hubs or
switches without requiring a crossover cable.
 There are typically one or two ports on a device that can be toggled
between MDI (not crossed) and MDI-X (crossed).
MDIX:
 It uses straight through twisted pair cabling allowing crossover (X)
signals to be transmitted and received without the need of crossover
cable.

138
Con’t….MDI/MDIX PORT

139
Cable Crimping
 Two types of cables are used to connect devices to hubs and switches:
crossover cables and straight-through cables.
 The difference between the two types is that in a crossover cable, two
of the wires are crossed; in a straight-through cable, all the wires
run straight through.
 Crossover – PC to PC, Hub to Hub, Switch to Hub, connects the same
devices
 Straight-through – PC to Hub, PC to Switch, connects different
devices

140
141
142
Managed Hubs and Switches
 A managed device has an interface through which it can be
configured to perform certain special functions.
 For example, it may allow for port mirroring, which can be
useful for network monitoring, or allow ports to be
specified to operate at a certain speed.
 managed devices are considerably more expensive than
unmanaged devices.
 Eg. Cisco Switches

143
CON’T….Managed Hubs and Switches
 Managed switches: provides flexibility to the network
administrator to control, manage, and prioritize the LAN
traffic.

 an unmanaged switch works like a plug and play switch

which allows devices on the LAN to communicate with
each other, without user intervention.

144
3)Bridges
 Bridges are networking devices that connect networks.
 Sometimes it is necessary to divide networks into subnets
to reduce the amount of traffic on each or for security
reasons. larger subnet
 Once divided, the bridge connects the two subnets and
manages the traffic flow between them.
 Today, network switches have largely replaced bridges.

145
CON’T…BRIDGE

146
 A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the
destination MAC address written into each frame of data.

 If the bridge believes the destination address is on a network

other than that from which the data was received, it can forward
the data to the other networks to which it is connected.

 If the address is not on the other side of the bridge, the data is
blocked from passing.

147
CON’T…BRIDGE
 Bridges "learn" the MAC addresses of devices on connected
networks by "listening" to network traffic and recording the
network from which the traffic originates.
 The advantages of bridges are simple and significant.
 By preventing unnecessary traffic from crossing onto other
network segments, a bridge can dramatically reduce the
amount of network traffic on a segment.

148
4)Repeater
 Repeaters are usually used to strengthen signals going long
distances.
 A repeater amplifies the signal it receives on one port before it
transmits it on other ports.
 Because the repeater does not check on the contents of the data
it receives or retransmits, frames that are corrupted by noise and
other factors can also be repeated.
 The development of the hub replaced the repeater for all
practical purposes, because it performs the same functions, and
can include additional features.

149
4)Routers
 Routers are network devices that literally route data around the
network.
 By examining data as it arrives, the router can determine the
destination address for the data; then, by using tables of defined
routes, the router determines the best way for the data to continue its
journey.
 Unlike bridges and switches, which use the hardware-configured MAC
address to determine the destination of the data, routers use the
software-configured network address to make decisions.
 This approach makes routers more functional than bridges or
switches, and it also makes them more complex because they have to
work harder to determine the information.

150
CON’T…ROUTER

151
 A router is used to provide connectivity across wide area
network (WAN) links and route information between two LAN
segments.
 The figure below shows a router with two LAN ports (marked AUI
0 and AUI 1) and two WAN ports (marked Serial 0 and Serial 1).
This router is capable of routing data between two LAN
segments and two WAN segments.

152
Dedicated Hardware Versus Server-Based
Routers
 A router can be either a dedicated hardware device or a server
system that has at least two network interfaces installed in it.
 advantages of dedicated hardware routers:
 Typically faster than server-based routers
 Generally more reliable than server-based routers
 Easier to harden against attacks than server-based routing solutions
 disadvantages of dedicated hardware routers:
 More expensive than server-based router solutions; extra functionality may have
to be purchased
 Often require specialized skills and knowledge to manage them
 Limited to a small range of possible uses

153
 When Do You Need to Use a Router?
 Not every network needs a router.
 a simple switch-based LAN can provide all the file and print sharing
your business needs within the LAN.
 Situations in which a router might be needed:
 to resolve network congestion, you can divide your network into
multiple subnets and connect them using a router.
 You want to connect to branch offices or other wide area networks,
such as the Internet.
 You want to be able to filter the network traffic that passes between one
LAN and the next, or between your network and the Internet.

154
 5)Gateways
 The term gateway is applied to any device, system, or software
application that can perform the function of translating data from
one format to another.
 Actually, the term gateway refers more to a network role than a
network device.
 For example, a router that can route data from an IPX network to an
IP network is, technically, a gateway.

155
 CON’T…Gateways
 Another example of a gateway involves the Systems Network
Architecture (SNA) gateway, which converts the data format
used on a PC to that used on an IBM mainframe or
minicomputer.
 A system that acts as an SNA gateway sits between the client
PC and the mainframe and translates requests and replies
from both directions.
 The definition of gateways is vague, it's because there is no
definite answer.
 The function of a gateway is very specific, but how the gateway
functionality is implemented is not

156
157
 6)CSUs/DSUs
 A Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit (CSU/DSU) acts as a
translator between the LAN data format and the WAN data format.
 Such a conversion is necessary because the technologies used on
WAN links are different from those used on LANs.
 A CSU/DSU has physical connections for the LAN equipment, and
another connection for a WAN.
 Traditionally, the CSU/DSU has been in a separate box from other
networking equipment; however, the increasing use of WAN links
means that some router manufacturers are now including the
CSU/DSU functionality in routers or are providing the expansion
capability to do so.

158
159
7)Modems
 Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and demodulator.
 Modems perform a simple function: They translate digital signals
from a computer into analog signals that can travel across
conventional phone lines.
 Modems provide a relatively slow method of communication. In fact,
the fastest modem available on the market today has a maximum
speed of 56Kbps.
 available as
 internal devices that plug into PCI/ISA slots
 external devices that plug into serial or USB ports;
 PCMCIA(Personal Computer Memory Card International Association;) cards designed for use in
laptops

160
161
8)Network Interface Cards (NICs)
 NICs are the mechanisms by which computers connect to a
network.
 NICs come in all shapes and sizes, and they come in prices to suit all
budgets.
 Known as network card, network adapter, and LAN adapter, etc.
 When buying one consider
 Network compatibility – Ethernet/Token Ring
 Bus compatibility – PCI/ ISA /PCI-e
 Port compatibility – UTP/ Fibre
 Hardware compatibility – Easy to install / Recognized by many OS’s

162
163
 CON’T…NIC
 A network interface typically has at least two
LEDs that indicate certain conditions:
 Link light - indicates whether a network
connection exists between the card and the
switch/hub.
 Activity light - indicates network activity.
 Speed light - indicates that the interface is
connected at a certain speed.

164
9)Wireless Access Point (WAP)
 are a transmitter and receiver (transceiver) device used for
wireless LAN (WLAN) radio signals.
 Depending on the size of the network, one or more WAPs
may be required. Additional WAPs are used to allow access
to more wireless clients and to expand the range of the
wireless network.
 Communication depends on
 Distance between the client and the WAP
 Environmental conditions

165
166
10)Transceivers
 The term transceiver does not necessarily describe a separate
network device but rather an integrated technology embedded in
devices.
 transceiver = transmitter and a receiver
 device that receives data, converts it, and then sends it to another
location
 RF transceivers, fiber-optic transceivers, Ethernet transceivers,
are examples
 can also be used in pairs to insert a fiber segment into copper
networks
167
Fiber Optic Transceiver
168
11)Firewall
 a hardware or software system that is used to separate one
computer or network from another one.
 The most common type is used to protect a computer or an entire
network from unauthorized access from the Internet.
 can also be used to control the flow of data to and from multiple
networks within the same organization.
 Firewalls can be programmed to filter data packets based on the
information that is contained in the packets.

169
 Network Cabling
• Cabling specifications
– Bandwidth measures cable speed
• Typically measured in Mbps
– Maximum cable length
– Connector describes the type of plug

9A-170
 Network Cabling
• Ethernet
• Generally, some people use the term “Ethernet” or
ether refers to cable
– Very popular cabling technology
– 10 Base T, 10Base2, 10Base5
– Maximum bandwidth 10 Mbps
– Maximum distances100 to 500 meters

9A-171
 Network Cabling
• Fast Ethernet
– Newer version of Ethernet
– Bandwidth is 100 Mbps
– Uses Cat5 or greater cable
• Sometimes called 100Base T
– Requires a switch

9A-172
 CONT NETWORK CABLING
1.10Base5 cable. 10Base5 cable or “Thick Ethernet”
• or Thicket is the cable which is the oldest in the
category
• It is called as thicket because of the use of thick
coaxial cable
• The thicket uses bus topology.
• The cable operates at 10Mbps and it can support a
maximum segment length of 500 meters.

9A-173
 CONT NETWORK CABL
• It supports 100 nodes per segment. 10Base5 cable
allows, at maximum, five segments (each of max of
500 meter) to be connected.
• These segment are connected with the help of
repeaters. Therefore four repeaters are allowed to be
used providing the effective length of2.5 km.
 2. 10Base2 Cable.
 10Base2 cable also called “Thin Ethernet” or Thinnet
or cheapnet or cheapernet, was designed after the
thick Ethernet cable.
 This type of cable is usually thin, flexible and bends easily. It also make
use of bus topology. It is also a coaxial cable that is having a smaller
diameter than the 10Base5 cable

9A-175
 CONT…10Base2 Cable
• The connections to this cable are made by BNC connectors.
The connections are created by forming T junctions. These
are easier to use and more reliable than vampire
connections
• The Ethernet based on this type of cables is cheaper and
easy to install but it can run for 200 meters and it supports
30 nodes per segment. In both of these network cables,
detecting cable breaks, bad taps or loose connections can
be a major problem.

9A-176
 3.10BaseT Cable
• l0BaseT cable or “Twisted Pair” Cable is cheapest
and easiest to maintain
• This type of cabling is most popular among local
area networks. It make use of unshielded twisted
pair and provides maximum segment length of 100 m.
• It make use of star topology. In this type of network,
every station is having a wired link to a central
device, called “Hub”.

9A-177
 CONT…10BaseT Cable

9A-178
 4. 10BaseF Cable.
• 10BaseF cable or “Fiber Optics Cable” is the most efficient and fastest
cable in the category of cables for 802 LANs
• The fiber optic cable is very expensive as compared to above discussed
cables but it offers a very high data transmission speed and noise
immunity.
• this type of cabling is preferred for running networks between
buildings or widely separated hubs.
• It has the highest length per cable segment i.e. 2000 meters and it
can support 1024 nodes per cable segment.

9A-179
 Cont…10BaseF Cable

NB:Both baseband and broadband describe how data is transmitted

between two nodes.
•Baseband technology transmits a single data signal/stream/channel at
a time while broadband technology transmits multiple data
signals/streams/channels simultaneously at the same time.

9A-180
 Network Cabling
• Gigabit Ethernet
– High bandwidth version of Ethernet
– 1 to 10 Gbps
– Cat 5 or fiber optic cable
– Video applications

9A-181
 Network Cabling
• Token ring:
• token ring network is a local area network (LAN) in
which all computers are connected in a ring or star
topology and pass one or more tokens from host to
host
– Uses shielded twisted pair cabling
– Bandwidth between 10 and 25 Mbps

9A-182
 How do you connect twisted pair cables?

• The main method to put connectors on twisted-pair

cables is crimping.
• You could use a cable crimping tool to push the
metal contacts inside the connector onto the individual
conductors in the cable, thus making the connection.

RJ-45connector Cable crimping tool

9A-183
Ethernet cable coding diagram
 Color standard t568a patch(Straight through) and cross over cable

9A-185
 Color standard t568B patch(Straight through) and cross over cable

9A-186
 Ethernet crossover cable

• An Ethernet crossover cable is a crossover cable for Ethernet

used to connect computing devices together directly.
• It is most often used to connect two devices of the same
type, e.g. two computers (via their network interface
controllers) or two switches to each other.

9A-187
 Straight-through cables
• Straight-through cables are mainly used for
connecting non-similar devices while crossover
cables are mostly used for connecting similar
devices.
• Straight through cable connects a computer with a
DSL modem while Crossover cable connects
Router to Router and Computer to Computer.

9A-188
 What is Straight Through Cable?

Straight Through Cable

9A-189
 Cont…Straight Through Cable
• Straight-through cable is a type of CAT5 with RJ-45
connectors at each end, and each has the same pin out.
• It is in accordance with either the T568A or T568B standards.
• It uses the same color code throughout the LAN for
consistency. This type of twisted-pair cable is used in LAN to
connect a computer or a network hub such as a router. It is
one of the most common types of network cable.

9A-190
 What Is Crossover Cable?

Crossover Cable

9A-191
 Cont.…Crossover cable
• A Crossover cable is a type of CAT 5 where one end isT568A
configuration and the other end as T568BConfiguration.
• In this type of cable connection, Pin 1 is crossed with Pin 3, and
Pin 2 is crossed with Pin 6.
• Crossover cable is used to connect two or more computing
devices. The internal wiring of crossover cables reverses the
transmission and receive signals. It is widely used to connect
two devices of the same type: e.g., two computers or two switches
to each other.

9A-192
 KEY DIFFERENCES
• Crossover cable, Pin 1 is crossed with Pin 3, and Pin 2 is
crossed with Pin 6 while in Straight-through cable Pin
connection is one to one.
• Straight-through cables are mainly used for connecting non-
similar devices while crossover cables are mostly used for
connecting similar devices.
• Straight through cable connects a computer with a DSL
modem while Crossover cable connects Router to Router and
Computer to Computer.

9A-193
 When to use Straight Through Cable?

Computer to network switch/hub

9A-194
 Applications of straight through cable

Here are applications where you should use straight through cable:

• It helps you to connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port.

• You can use it to connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
• It allows you to connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's
LAN port.
• Connect 2 switches or hubs with one of the hub or switch using an up line
port and the other one using a normal port.

9A-195
 When to use Crossover Cable?

9A-196 Router to Router

 Application of crossover cable
• Here is an application where you should use Crossover Cable:

• It can use a computer to a computer with no switch or hub.

• Network devise to the network device. For example, the route to the router.
• Crossover cable enables one to establish a direct connection between two
computing devices using Ethernet ports.
• It Connects two computers directly.
• You can connect two hubs/switches by using the normal port in
both switches and hubs.

9A-197