Strength of Materials

Stress, Strain and Axial Loading

 Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Method of Section
1.3 Normal Stress and Strain
1.4 Stress-Strain diagram
1.5 Linear Elasticity, Hook’s law, and poison’s ratio
1.6 Shear Stress and Strain
1.7 Axial load and deformation
1.8 Ultimate and Allowable Stress: Factor of Safety
 1.1 Introduction
 Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that
deals
with the behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of
loading
Engineering Mechanics

Statics Mechanics of
Dynamics Materials
 Statics
 Study of External Effects on Rigid Bodies
Dynamics

Mechanics of  Study of Internal Effects and Deformations

Materials that are Caused by the Application of Loads

 Other Names of Mechanics of Materials:

 Strength of Materials
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies
 Mechanics of Solids
 The solid bodies considered include
• Bars with axial loads,
• Shafts in torsion,
• Beams in bending, and
• Columns in compression

 The principal objective of mechanics of materials is to determine the

• stresses,

• strains, and

• displacements in structures and their components due to the loads acting on them.

 If we can find these quantities for all values of the loads up to the loads that cause failure, we will

have a complete picture of the mechanical behavior of these structures.

 1.2 Method of Section
 One of the main problem of engineering mechanics of solids is the investigation of
the internal resistance of a body, i.e. the nature of forces set up with in a body to
balance the effect of the externally applied forces. A free body diagram is used to
investigate this problem.

 A free-body diagram is a diagram which shows all of the externally applied active
(action) and reactive (reaction) forces to keep the body in state of static equilibrium.

 Suppose that external forces P1 and P2 are applied on a body in fig.1 and these
external forces are supported by reactive forces P3 and P4.
 Suppose that external forces P1 and P2 are applied on a
body in fig.(a) and these external forces are supported by
reactive forces P3 and P4 to make the body in equilibrium
 An arbitrary section ABCD is passed through the body
and separates it into two halves, fig. (b) and (c). This
process is called method of sections
 Since the body as a whole is in equilibrium, the two
halves are also in equilibrium and the external forces are
balanced by internal forces S1, S2, and S3, fig.(b) and (c)
The intensity of this internal forces with in a given area is
called stress.
 1.3 Normal Stress and Strain
Stress
It is a measure of the internal reaction between elementary
particles of a material in resisting separation, compaction, or
sliding that tend to be induced by external forces.
Mathematically, it is expressed as the ratio of the load applied
to the cross sectional area.
Stress = Force /Area ……..……… (1.1)
•Unit: N/m2 (Pa.) or N/mm2 (MPa)
1.3.1 Normal Stress
• Consider a prismatic bar loaded axially at its both ends with a force P, as
shown in figure.
• Let us now take section mn, at an arbitrary distance
from the left end of the bar
• At the right-hand end of this free body
(section mn) we show the action of the
removed part of the bar (i.e., the part to the right of section mn) upon the
part that remains.
• This action consists of continuously distributed stresses, called Normal
Stresses, acting over the entire cross section, and the axial force P acting at
the cross section is the resultant of those stresses.
 Symbolically stress is denoted by the Greek letter σ (sigma).

• Therefore, the expression for the magnitude of the Normal stress is

……………. (1.2)

• Sign convention: Tensile stress are taken as positive and compressive stresses are taken as
negative.

• Application of Normal stress:

• Truss in structural members, frames in different machine components, piston rods in

hydraulic systems, connecting rods in IC engines, different compression members, tension
cable, etc.
1.3.2 Normal Strain
 When loads are applied to a body, some deformation will occur
resulting to a change in dimension.
 Normal Strain is defined as the amount of axial deformation an object
experiences compared to its original length when an external axial load P applied
on it.

 Consider a bar, subjected to axial tensile loading force, P. If the bar extension is δ
and its original length (before loading) is L, then tensile strain, denoted by ε (Greek
letter epsilon). is:

………….. (1.3)
Example 1.1:

 A circular aluminium tube of length L 400 mm is loaded in compression by

forces P (see figure). The outside and inside diameters are 60 mm and 50 mm,
respectively. A strain gage is placed on the outside of the bar to measure
normal strains in the longitudinal direction.

(a) If the measured strain is ε = 550 x106, what is the shortening δ of the bar?

(b) If the compressive stress in the bar is intended to be 40 MPa, what should be
the load P?
Example 1.2:

• Calculate the compressive stress σc in the circular piston rod (see figure)
when a force P = 40 N is applied to the brake pedal. Assume that the line
of action of the force P is parallel to the piston rod, which has diameter 5
mm. Also, the other dimensions shown in the figure (50 mm and 225 mm)
are measured perpendicular to the line of action of the force P.
 1.4 Stress-Strain diagram
 The only way to determine how materials behave when they
are subjected to loads is to perform experiments in the
laboratory
 The usual procedure is to place small specimens of the
material in testing machines, apply the loads, and then
measure the resulting deformations (such as changes in
length and changes in diameter).
 To obtain the stress-strain diagram of a material, a tensile
test is conducted on a specimen of the material using tensile
test machine shown on the right
 One type of specimen commonly used for tensile test is
shown on the right
 The stress-strain diagram may then be obtained by plotting ε as an abscissa
and σ as an ordinate.

Figure 1.1 Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension (not to scale)
 The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin O to point A, which means that the
relationship between stress and strain in this initial region is not only linear but also
proportional.

 Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists; hence the stress
at A is called the proportional limit

 The slope of the straight line from O to A is called the modulus of elasticity

 With an increase in stress beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more
rapidly for each increment in stress.

Consequently, the stress-strain curve has a smaller and smaller slope, until, at point B, the curve
becomes horizontal (see Figure.). Beginning at this point, considerable elongation of the test
specimen occurs with no noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C).
 This phenomenon is known as yielding of the material, and point B is called the yield point. The
corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of the steel.

 In the region from B to C, the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it deforms without an
increase in the applied load.

 After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain
harden

 Elongation of the test specimen in this region requires an increase in the tensile load, and therefore the
stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D.

 The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is called the

ultimate stress

 Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs

at a point such as E in the Figure.

 The ductility of a material in tension can be characterized by its elongation
and by the reduction in area at the cross section where fracture occurs.
The percent elongation is defined as follows:

…………… (1.4)

• in which Lois the original gage length and L1 is the distance between the
gage marks at fracture

 The percent reduction in area measures the amount of necking that

occurs and is defined as follows:
……..….. (1.5)
 Materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of strain are
classified as brittle.
• Examples are concrete, stone, cast iron, glass, ceramics, and a variety of
metallic alloys.
• Brittle materials fail with only little elongation after the proportional limit
(the stress at point A in Fig. below) is exceeded

Figure 1.2 Typical stress-strain diagram for a brittle material showing the proportional
limit (point A) and fracture stress (point B)
 1.5 Linear Elasticity, Hook’s law, and poison’s ratio
 When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship
between stress and strain, it is said to be linearly elastic.
 The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension
or compression is expressed by the equation
Where: ……………. (1.6)
σ is the axial stress,
ε is the axial strain, and
E is a constant of proportionality known as the modulus
of elasticity or Young’s modulus for the material and it is the slope
of the stress-strain diagram in the linearly elastic region,
 Equation (1.6) is commonly known as Hooke’s law, named for the famous
English scientist Robert Hooke (1635–1703).
Poisson’s Ratio
 When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation
is accompanied by lateral contraction

 The lateral strain ε’ at any point in a bar is proportional to the

axial strain ε at that same point if the material is linearly elastic.

 The ratio of these strains is a property of the material known as

Poisson’s ratio denoted by the Greek letter ν (nu), can be
expressed by the equation

………… (1.7)
Example 1.3:
 A tensile test is performed on a brass specimen 10 mm in diameter
using a gage length of 50 mm (see figure). When the tensile load P
reaches a value of 20 kN, the distance between the gage marks has
increased by 0.122 mm.

(a) What is the modulus of elasticity E of the brass?

(b) If the diameter decreases by 0.00830 mm, what is Poisson’s ratio?

 1.6 Shear Stress and Strain
1.6.1 Shear Stress
 The force is applied parallel/tangential to the cross
sectional area
Assumption: shear forces are non collinear
•Symbol for shear stress is Greek letter tau (τ)
………………… (1.8)
1.6.2 Shear Strain
 Shear strain is the distortion produced by shear stress on an element or rectangular
block as below.

 The shear strain, denoted by the Greek letter gamma (γ) is given as

…………….. (1.9)
• For small angle

 Shear strain then becomes the change in the right angle.

• It is dimensionless and is measured in radians.
Hook’s law in Shear
 The properties of a material in shear can be determined experimentally from direct-
shear tests or from torsion tests.

The latter tests are performed by twisting hollow, circular tubes, thereby producing a
state of pure shear.

From the results of these tests, we can plot shear stress-strain diagrams (that is,

diagrams of shear stress τ versus shear strain γ).

These diagrams are similar in shape to tension-test diagrams (σ versus ε) for the
same materials, although they differ in magnitudes.
 From shear stress-strain diagrams, we can obtain material properties such as the
proportional limit, modulus of elasticity, yield stress, and ultimate stress in shear.

For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress-strain diagram is a straight line
through the origin, just as it is in tension.

For this linearly elastic region, the shear stress and shear strain are proportional, and
therefore we have the following equation for Hooke’s law in shear

………….... (1.10)

• in which G is the shear modulus of elasticity (also called the modulus of rigidity).

 The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are related by the following equation:

………………… (1.11)
Example 1.4:
 A punch for making holes in steel plates is shown in Fig.
(a). Assume that a punch having diameter d = 20 mm is
used to punch a hole in an 8mm plate, as shown in the
cross-sectional view (Fig. (b)). If a force P = 110 KN is
required to create the hole, what is the average shear stress
in the plate and the average compressive stress in the
punch?
Bearing Stress
 Bolts, rivets, and pins create stresses on the points of contact or bearing surfaces of the
members they connect.

The resultant of the force distribution on the surface is equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin. Corresponding average force intensity is called bearing stress,

…………….. (1.12)
Example 1.5:
 Link AB of width b = 50 mm and thickness t = 6 mm, is used to
support the end of a horizontal beam. Knowing that the average
normal stress in the link is -140 MPa, and that the average
shearing stress in each of the two pins is 80 MPa, determine

(a) the diameter d of the pins,

(b) the average bearing stress in the link

 1.7 Axial load and deformation
 Consider a homogeneous rod BC of length L and uniform cross
section of area A subjected to a centric axial load P.
 If the resulting axial stress σ = P/ A does not exceed the proportional
limit of the material, we may apply Hooke's law and write
• From which it follows that
……… (i)
• Recalling that the strain ε was defined as
………. (ii)
• Substituting for ε from (ii) into (i)
…………. (1.13)
Example 1.6:

• An aluminium wire having a diameter d = 2 mm and length L = 3.8 m

is subjected to a tensile load P (see figure). The aluminium has
modulus of elasticity E = 75 GPa. If the maximum permissible
elongation of the wire is 3.0 mm and the allowable stress in tension is
60 MPa, what is the allowable load Pmax?
Example 1.7:

• The horizontal rigid beam ABCD is supported by

vertical bars BE and CF and is loaded by vertical
forces P1 = 400 kN and P2 = 360 kN acting at points A
and D, respectively (see figure). Bars BE and CF are
made of steel (E = 200 GPa) and have cross-sectional
areas A =11,100 mm2 and A = 9,280 mm2. The
BE CF

distances between various points on the bars are shown

in the figure. Determine the vertical displacements δA
and δD of points A and D, respectively.
Stress on an Oblique Plane under Axial Loading
 Axial forces on a two force member result in only
normal stresses on a plane cut perpendicular to the
member axis.

 Transverse forces on bolts and pins result in only shear

stresses on the plane perpendicular to bolt or pin axis

However, either axial or transverse forces may produce

both normal and shear stresses with respect to a plane
other than one cut perpendicular to the member axis
 Pass a section through the member forming an angle θ with the
normal plane.

 From equilibrium conditions, the distributed forces (stresses)

on the plane must be equivalent to the force P.

Resolve P into components normal and tangential to the oblique

section,
……… (i)
• The average normal and shear stresses on the oblique plane are
………. (ii)
Maximum Stresses

 The maximum normal stress occurs when the reference plane

is perpendicular to the member axis,

…………. (iii)

 The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at + 45o with

respect to the axis

…….. (iv)
Example 1.8:

8. Two wooden members of uniform rectangular cross section are joined by

the simple glued scarf splice shown. Knowing that P = 11 KN, determine
the normal and shearing stresses in the glued splice.
 Multi axial Loading; Generalized Hooke's Law
 Consider structural cubic element of an isotropic material with all
its sides unit length subjected to loads acting in the directions of the

three coordinate axes and producing normal stresses σx, σy, and σz,
which are all different from zero. This condition is referred to as a
multi axial lauding.

 Under the given multi axial loading, the element will deform into

a rectangular parallelepiped of sides equal, respectively, to 1 + εx, 1

+ εy, and 1 + εz, where εx, εy, and εz denote the values of the normal
strain in the directions of the three coordinate axes.
 In such multi axial loading the strain components εx, εy, and εz can be

expressed in terms of the stress components σx, σy, and σz as

…………… (i)

 This relation is referred to as the generalized Hooke's law for the multi-
axial loading of a homogeneous isotropic material
Example 1.9:

9. A fabric used in air-inflated structures is subjected to a biaxial

loading that results in normal stresses σx = 120 MPa and σz = 160

MPa. Knowing that the properties of the fabric can be
approximated as E = 87 GPa and v = 0.34, determine the change in

(a) length of side AB,

(b) length of side BC,

(c) length of diagonal AC

(d) Change in Area of ABCD

 1.8 Ultimate and Allowable Stress: Factor of Safety
 Factors to be considered in design include

• Functionality

• Strength

• Appearance

• Economics, and

• Environmental effects

 However, when studying mechanics of materials, our principal design interest

is strength, that is, the capacity of the object to support or transmit loads.
• 
 If structural failure is to be avoided, the loads that a structure is
capable of supporting must be greater than the loads it will be subjected
to when in service or the actual strength of a structure must exceed the
required strength

 The ratio of the actual strength to the required strength is called the
factor of safety (F.S.):

Factor of Safety (F.S) = = … (1.14)

Allowable Load and Allowable Stress:
 The maximum load that a structural member or a machine component will
be allowed to carry under normal conditions of utilization is considerably
smaller than the ultimate load.

This smaller load is referred to as the allowable load and sometimes called
working load or design load. The Corresponding Stress is called allowable
Stress
• 
 For ductile materials the factor of safety is established with respect to
yielding of the structure and thus the allowable stress can be given as

Allowable Stress, σall =

 For brittle materials the factor of safety is established with respect to

ultimate stresses instead of the yield stress and thus the allowable stress
can be given as

Allowable Stress, σall =

Example 1.10:

 Two forces are applied to the bracket BCD as shown,

(a) Knowing that the control rod AB is to be made of a steel having an

ultimate normal stress of 600 MPa, determine the diameter of the rod
for which the factor of safety with respect to failure will be 3.3.

(b) The pin at C is to be made of a steel having an ultimate shearing

stress of 350 MPa. Determine the diameter of the pin C for which the
factor of safety with respect to shear will also be 3.3.

(c) Determine the required thickness of the bracket supports at C

knowing that the allowable bearing stress of the steel used is 300 MPa.
Example 1.11
11.The rod ABC is made of Aluminium for which E = 70 GPa.
Knowing that P = 6 KN and Q = 42 KN, determine the deflection of
(a) Point A
(b) Point B
Questions ???